Exercise 8. Read and translate text B with a dictionary. Write a summary of the text.
Text B.
One of the ancient human activities is building construction. It began with a purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effect of climate. Human shelters were constructed to adapt human beings to a wide variety of climates and become a global species. But temporary structures were used only a few days or months. Over time were they evolved into such a highly refined form as the igloo. After agriculture had emerged, people began to stay in one place for long periods. That's why more durable structures began to appear. The first human shelters were very simple. The first shelters were dwellings. But later they were used for other functions, such as food storage and ceremony. Some structures began to have symbolic as well as functional value, marking the beginning of the distinction between architecture and building.
Building constructionhas its own history, whichis markedby a number of trends. Let's describe some of them. One of these trends is increasing durability of the material as the first building materials were perishable. We mention leaves,branches and animal hides. Later people began to use moredurable natural material such as clay, stone, timber. Finally, syntheticmaterials such as brick, concrete, metals, plastics were used inbuilding; anothertrend isquest for buildings of greater height and span. It was possible bythe development of stronger building materialsand byknowledge of how materials behave and how to exploitthem to greateradvantage. The third trend involves the degree of control exercised over the interior environment of buildings increasingly precise regulation of air temperature, light and sound levels, humidity, air speed. All factors that affect human comfort become possible. A modern trend is change in energy of the construction progress starting with human muscle power and developing toward the powerful machinery.
Exercise 9. Translate from English into Russian. Define the syntax functions of the underlined words.
1. An arcuated structure, the one built up of arches, acts structurally on a flat plane.
2. Lateral forces can be resisted by substantial buttresses along the walls or by thickening the wall.
3. An example of a barrel vault raised to great height is the nave of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France.
4. A solution devised earlier by the Romans was to run additional barrel vaults at right angles to the main vault so that they intersected, resulting in a groin vault.
5. The wall of the drum below, also 21 feet (6.4 meters) thick, supporting the five thousand tons of the dome, is hollowed out by niches 14 feet (4.3 meters) deep.
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6. The greatest weight had to be carried, to pumice in the part of the dome nearest the oculus.
7. A solution devised earlier by the Romans was to run additional barrel vaults resulting in a groin vault.
Exercise 10. Translate the words :
жесткий, опора, расположение, купол, свод-оболочка, заполнитель, известняк, цемент, связующий, свод.
Exercise 11. Note in the texts of this unit:
a. Noun groups
b. Modal Verbs
c. Passive Voice
d. ed-forms
e. ing-forms
f. s-forms
UNIT 6
Exercise 1.Translate the auxiliary words :
for, too, since, wherever, whenever, whatever, as, both…and, once, by, A.D., B.C., below, over, just, while, across, from one end to the other.
Exercise 2. Words to be remembered:
sidewalk (pavement – Br.) – тротуар
mortar – строительный раствор
sand – песок
gravel – гравий
mix – смешивать
contain – содержать
occur – происходить
form (v., n..) – формировать, форма
mold – образец
cure – отвердевать
dry – высушивать
curve (v., n.) – искривлять, кривизна
evocative – вызывающий воспоминания
formwork (shuttering) – опалубка
adjacent – смежный, прилегающий
enclose – охватывать
triangle – треугольник
pendentive – парус свода
transition – переход
cut (v., n.) – резать, срез
extend – расширять
Exercise 3. Read and translate text A.
Text A. VAULTS (Part II)
For both the Romans and us, the cement itself is too costly to make entire buildings, sidewalks, or other constructions from it alone. Even the mortar used between bricks and stone is stretched by adding sand; and in making concrete, gravel and sand are mixed in as the aggregate.
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Since the mid-nineteenth century, iron or steel rods have been placed in the formwork for modern concrete wherever tensile forces will occur. Formwork is one of the cost disadvantages of concrete. As first mixed, concrete is a thick viscous material and must be contained in forms, or molds, until it has cured and dried; the formwork (called shuttering in England) is like the centering used for arch construction. In large structures, both in Roman times and now, this means the construction of substantial and expensive wooden structures, significant in themselves, which are then destroyed once the concrete has cured sufficiently for the forms to be removed.
Domes, particularly of the size of the Pantheon in Rome, are powerfully evocative spaces, but they require circular plans, making it difficult to add adjacent spaces. This problem became acute by the fourth century A.D., but the solution devised by Byzantine architects was to place the dome over a square plan below. What made this possible was the curved triangle-shaped spherical segment called a pendentive.
Imagine a square over which you wish to place a dome. First cover the square with a larger hemisphere, which just touches the corners of the square. Then slice downward along the sides of the square so that looking down on the cut hemisphere you see a square. Then, just at the top of the semicircles now forming the sides, slice off the top parallel to the square on the bottom. The resulting form has a circular shape at the top while at the bottom it is a square. The four curved segments that remain are the pendentives, making the transition from the square plan below to the circular plan above. An excellent example of the use of pendentives is found in the church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), Istanbul, Turkey, 532-37. designed by Isidores of Miletos and Anthemios of Tralles. As with the Pantheon in Rome, the space enclosed is huge; here the dome is 107 feet (32.6 meters) across, but with the extended half-domes below and the barrel-vaulted spaces beyond, the total clear distance from one end of the church to the other is more than 250 feet (76.2 meters).
Exercise 4. Translate the words:
sidewalks, construction, structure, mortar, gravel, sand, aggregate, shuttering, enclose, cure, dry, curve, occur.
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