Grammatical transformations in translation
Most writers on the subject distinguish between the following grammatical transformations in translation:
1. Transposition is a change in the order of words in phrases and sentences, which is often caused by the structural differences in expressing the theme and the rheme in different languages. E.g.:
A girl entered the room. - У кшнату увійшла дівчина;
An old man was sitting by the side of the road. - Біля краю дороги cuдів старий;
А column 185 feat high with a statue of Admiral Nelson on top was erected in Trafalgar Square in 1867. - У 1867 році, на Трафалыарській площі була споруджена колона 185 фуmi в заввишки, на верхівці якої була вастановлена статуя адмирала Нельсона.
2.Grammatical replacement is substitution of the word belonging to one part of speech by a word belonging to another part of speech (morphological replacement) or substitution of one syntactical construction by another one (syntactical replacement). E.g.:
He is a good runner. - Biн гарно бігає;
I saw her standing there. - Я бачив, що вона там стояла;
The Times wrote editorially (...) – У передовій статті газета Таймс писала (...)
3.Additionis used to compensate for semantic or grammatical losses and often accompanies transpositionand grammatical replacement. E.g.:
His wife had been beautiful. - Його дружина колись (або у молодості) була красунею;
workers of all industries - робітники уcix галузей npомисловocmi;
Candidates will purchase a logbook listing all the modules. - Бажаючі прийняти участь у програмі купують облікову книжку учасника курсів, яка містить перелік уcix навчальних модулів.
4.Omissionis a transformation opposite to addition and is used with the aim to avoid redundant information. E.g.:
the right to rest and leisure - право на відпочинок;
equality in trade and commerce - piвнi права у галузі mopгiвлi;
(...) regardless of age, education, experience or background – незалежно від віку, освіти та досвіду роботи.
Lexical and semantic transformations in translation
The transformations listed below have been labelled as lexicaland semanticbecause lexical changes often are caused by the need to adapt the meaning to the semantic peculiarities of the target culture. Most of the writers on the subject single out the following transformations of this kind:
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1. Generalization of meanings, which is substitution of the source language words (phrases) of a narrow meaning by the target language words (phrases) of a general (broader) meaning. E.g.:
My baby is 18 months. – Mоїй дитині півтора року;
This car costs seventeen hundred pounds. - Ця машина коштує в тисячу cімсот фунтів;
The soldiers walked in the ankle-deep dust. - Солдати йшли по коліно у пилюці;
wrist watch - наручный годинник.
2. Differentiation of meanings is caused by the fact that many English words with broad semantics do not have direct equivalents in Ukrainian. In such cases dictionaries give a number of meanings that only partially cover the meaning of the source language word and translators have to choose one of the variants, which suits the context best of all. Thus affection may be rendered as щиросердя but not obligatory as любов, прихильність, cимпатія; challenge - as проблема, нагальне завдання (питання) but not only as виклик; sustainable - as безперервний, непохитний, придатный, обгрунтований, остаточно визначений but not onlyas сталий, усталений, стійкий, etc.
3.Concretization (substantiation) of meanings is substitution of the source language words (phrases) with a generic meaning by the target language words (phrases) with a more specific (narrow) meaning. Concretization is always combined with differentiation. E.g.:
Run for the presidency. - Змагання за посаду президента;
Have you had your meal? - Ви вже поснідали?
networking - спілкування:
student - not only студент but also ученъ, слухач (depending upon the context).
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4. Logical (or sense) development is the substitution in translation of the dictionary equivalent by the contextual one, which is logically connected with the first. Here belong various metaphoric and metonymic changes performed on the basis of the notion of intersection, i.e. when a part of the content of one notion is included into the content of another notion and vice versa. To convey the same sense by means of another language there is often no difference what forms of the word express this content. Thus the object may be replaced by its feature, the process - by the object, the feature - by the object or a process, etc. Ya.I. Retsker [Рецкер 2004: 52] gives the following example of logical development: The Liverpool by-election was an acid test for the Labour candidate which can be hardly translated as Довибори у Лiвер пулi були випробуванням на кислотністьдля кандидата вiд лейбористів. Evidently it is necessary to substitute the process by its attribute - були лакмусовим папірцем. This logical development - substitution of the process by the object occurs within the framework of intersection because лакмусовый патрецъ is only a part of випробування на кислотність.
When logical development is applied to translation of verb combinations there can be established clear interrelationships between processes (actions or states), causes and effects (consequences). Thus the theory of permutations allows singling out six possible variants of logical development [see ibid.]: a) substitution of the process by its cause, b) substitution of the process by its effect, c) substitution of the cause by the process, d) substitution of the cause by its effect, e) substitution of the effect by its cause, f) substitution of the effect by the process.
To illustrate one of these transformations Ya.I. Retsker [ Рецкер 2004: 53] gives quite a straightforward example from A.Christie's book: "I don't think she's living here at the moment. Her bed wasn't slept in". It is quite appropriate in translation to substitute the process by its effect: instead of вона не спала у своему лiжку to use її лiжкo не зім'яте.
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5. Antonymous translation is the substitution of the source language notion by its opposite in translation with the relevant restructuring of the utterance aimed at faithful rendering of its content. Here belong such techniques as the use of an affirmative construction instead of a negative one or the use of semantic antonyms. E.g.:
Let a sleeping dog lie. - He чіпай лиха, коли воно спить;
The woman on the other end asked him to hang on. - Жінка на іншому кінці проводу сказала, щоб він не вішав трубку.
Keep foreign goods out. - He допускати імпорту іноземних тoвapiв or підтримувати вітчизняного виробника.
6. Full rearrangement of the text segment. This transformation rearranges the inner form of any segment of text: starting with a word, a phrase and ending up with a complete sentence. Such reorganization is of an integral nature so that visible structural relationships between the inner form of the source and target languages segments cannot be traced any more. However full rearrangement does not mean that logical and semantic relationships between the two segments disappear. If it were so, translation would not be faithful. On the contrary - full rearrangement presumes that equivalence of the content is retained in translation, though it is achieved by different means. Full rearrangement is very often used in rendering colloquial set expressions and idioms. Examples are: be my guest - ласкаво прошу; bottle - neck - вузъке (слабке) місце; don't move!, freez! – ані руш!; I'll be damned! - провалитися мені на цъому місці, хай йому чорт!; out of the blue - несподівано, раптом, як грім серед ясного неба, як сніг на голову; shut up! - заткни рота!; to soit things out - ставити на свої місця.
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7. Compensation for losses in the course of translation. According to A.V.Fedorov [Федоров 2002:169-170] in the practice of translation there are instances when a word or another element of the source text is not rendered at all or is substituted by a formally different one. However this omission does not contradict the principle of translatability because such elements belong to the text as a whole linguistic unit. These elements are essential for understanding of the text as parts of a system, which is formed by their interrelationships and links thus ensuring cohesion of the text. Within this coherent system there is a room for replacements and compensations. Therefore if a separate element, which doesn't play a key role in text organization, is lost in translation, it may be of no importance for the text as a whole because this element is dissolved in the general context or substituted by other elements, which sometimes do not exist in the source text.
Therefore compensation for losses in translation should be understood as substitution of the "untranslatable" source element by a different target language element in compliance with the general idea of the source text and in the place, which is in line with the rules of the target text.
Compensation is often applied to rendering of such "untranslatable" elements as non-equivalent units of the source language culture and specific national idioms but not only to them. Mona Baker [1992:78] writes that the strategy of compensation "means that one may either omit or play down a feature such as idiomaticity at the point where it occurs in the source text and introduce it elsewhere in the target text. This strategy is not restricted to idiomaticity or fixed expressions and may be used to make up for any loss of meaning, emotional force, or stylistic effect which may not be possible to reproduce directly at a given point in the target text".
If it is necessary to sacrifice either stylistic colouring or expressiveness of the text element in translation, it is worthwhile to retain at least its expressive trend. However, if stylistic colouring is essential for the style of the source text, it should be by all means rendered in translation at least at some other point in the target text, which the technique of compensation is aimed at. The following example [www.franko.lviv.ua] illustrates an attempt to compensate for certain losses in translation:
The education of Mr. Jonas had been conducted on the strictest principles of the main chance. The very first word he learned to spell was gain, and the second (when he got into two syllables), money [Ch.Dickens. Life and adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit].
Виховання пана Джонаса було саме суворе та із народження мало на yвaзі передуciм користь. Перше слово, яке він навчився складати, було "гроші", а друге (коли він дійшов до трискладових cлів) "нажива".
In the original Ch. Dickens writes not about the strictness of education as such but about "the strictest principles of the main chance", i.e. about "чіткі принципи не втратити свій шанс"or "чіткі принципи отримати наживу". Unfortunately this hypocritical idiomaticity has not been rendered in translation. However, the translator tries to compensate for this loss by increasing the level of irony further on in translation. Translation of the words gain and money also illustrates the technique of compensation: in the source text the first word Jonas learned to spell is gain and the second - money. In the Ukrainian translation грошіappears to be the first and нажива - the second due to the different number of syllables in the target language. Correspondingly the translator substitutes the phrase when he got into two syllables by коли він дійшов до трискладових слів.
A few closing remarks
Having completed translation of a text, it is quite appropriate to leave it for some time and to look at it later on "with a fresh look" so that all defects of translation can be clearly seen. Then the process of correcting and amending translation begins until translator considers the results of the job to be satisfactory.
Technological advances and globalisation processes that rapidly progress in the XXI century provide unlimited opportunities for translators to facilitate and improve results of their professional work. Numerous web sites on translation are available in the Internet, general and special dictionaries are constantly improved and updated, special computer software is being constantly designed to assist translators. On the one hand cultures and languages become closer to each other, but on the other - greater separation of professional subcultures and sublanguages becomes obvious. All these factors make the mission of translators and interpreters, who serve as mediators and facilitators of human progress, even more important in the fast-changing world of today.
SEMINAR 10
Questions for discussion and practical assignments:
1. Comment upon the main grammatical transformations used in translation (transposition, grammatical replacement, addition, omission). Suggest examples of your own.
2. Comment upon the main lexical and semantic transformations used in translation (generalization of meaning, differentiation of meaning, logical (or sense) development, antonymous translation, full rearrangement, compensation for losses in the course of translation). Suggest examples of your own.
3. Study the Ukrainian versions of the following texts and compare them with their officially published versions in English [Panorama, № 5, 2001] commenting upon lexical, semantic and grammatical transformations and other changes in the two versions. Suggest your arguments to decide which versions of texts are originals and which are translations:
| Успіх "Шеф, мені вдалося досягти певного ycnixy", - сказав торговець своєму торговому менеджеру, - за мною слідкують три інші компанії"'. "Дійсно?", - перепитав менеджер, "а які ж компанії слідкують за Вами?" - "Компанії, що надають електроенергію, газ, телефонні послуги та ще дещо..." Розлад сну Джон страждав тим, що пізно прокидався вранці (мав надзвичайно міцний сон), і тому завжди запізнювався на роботу. Його шеф дуже розгнівався на нього та пригрозив, що звільнить, якщо Джон не позбавиться цього недоліку. Тож Джон негайно звернувся до лікаря, який надав йому пігулку та порадив прийняти її перед сном. Джон добре спав і вранці його справді розбудив дзвінок будильника. Джон неквапно поснідав і задоволений приїхав на роботу. «Шеф», - вигукнув він, - «пігулка дійсно спрацювала!» «Це дуже добре», сказав шеф, - «але де Ви були вчора? На догоду шефу Одного вечора молодий працівник пізно залишав свій офіс і зустрів генерального директора, що стояв біля паперорізальної машини з аркушем паперу в руці. «Послухай», - сказав директор, - це дуже важливий документ, а моя секретарка вже пішла додому. Чи вмієш ти користуватися цією машиною?» «Звичайно», - сказав молодий працівник. Він увімкнув машину, вклав цей документ і натиснув кнопку. «Чудово, чудово!» - сказав директор, коли документ зник в машині, - «мені потрібна лише одна копія і не більше». Один вихідний день Містер Сміт йде до свого керівника, що знаходиться у кабінеті напроти. "Пане директоре", - говорить він, - "завтра вдома ми збираємося провести генеральне прибирання, тож моїй дружині потрібна допомога при наведенні порядку на горищі та в гаражі, адже там необхідно пересувати речі". "Сміт, зараз у нас нестача працівників", - відповів директор, - "я не можу надати Вам вихідний день". "Дякую, пане директоре", - сказав Сміт, - "я знав, що на Вас можна розраховувати". Новий співробітник Через декілька тижнів після прийому на роботу молодого чоловіка запросив у свій кабінет начальник відділу кадрів. "Що це значить?" - запитав начальник. "Коли Ви влаштовувалися на роботу, то сказали нам, що маєте 5-річний досвід. Тепер виявляється, що це Ваша перша робота в житті". "Так", - відповів молодий чоловік, "але у вашому оголошенні було зазначено, що вам потрібна людина з фантазією, один недолік перевершила моя позитивна риса..." Безкоштовно Одного дня шеф рано прийшов на роботу і побачив, що його менеджер цілує його секретарку. "І це те, за що я плачу Вам гроші?", закричав шеф на менеджера. Менеджер відповів: "Ні, сер, це я роблю безкоштовно, платите Ви мені за інше..." | Raise "Boss, I've got to have a raise", the salesman said to his sales manager. "There are three other companies after me." "Is that a fact?" the manager asked. "What other companies are after you?" "The electricity company, the phone company and the gas company." Sleeping disorder For John, getting up early had always been a problem. He had tried everything - going to bed early, setting three alarm clocks, but nothing seemed to work. After years of consistent tardiness, his boss gave him an ultimatum, either get to work on time, or get out! As a last report, John went to see the doctor. The doctor listened carefully, took notes, examined John, and then prescribed a pill for him to take before bedtime. John slept well, and in the morning actually woke up before the alarm. Very pleased by himself, he went for a jog, showered, had a leisurely breakfast and drove cheerfully to work. “Boss”, he said excitedly, “it worked! I woke up before the alarm, and I’m ready to face the day!” “That’s all very well,” replied the boss, “but where were you yesterday?” Pleasing the boss A young executive was leaving the office late one evening when he found the CEO standing in front of a shredder with a piece of paper in his hand. "Listen," said the CEO, "this is a very sensitive and important document here, and my secretary has gone for the night. Can you make this thing work?" "Certainly," said the young executive. He turned the machine on, inserted the paper, and pressed the start button. "Excellent, excellent!" said the CEO as his paper disappeared inside the machine. "I just need one copy." One day off Mr. Smith goes to see his supervisor in the front office. "Boss", he says, "we're doing some heavy housecleaning at home tomorrow, and my wife needs me to help her with the attic and the garage, moving and hauling stuff". "We're shorthanded, Smith," the boss replies."I can't give you the day off". "Thanks, boss," says Smith. "I knew I could count on you". The new employee Several weeks after a young man was hired, he was called into the personnel manager's office. "What is the meaning of this?" the manager asked. "When you applied for the job, you told us you had 5 year's experience. Now we discover this is the first job you've ever had." "Well," the young man said, "in your ad you said you wanted somebody with imagination." Free of charge The boss came in early one morning and found one of his managers kissing his secretary. "Is this what I pay you for?" the boss shouted. "No, sir," the manager replied. "This I do free of charge". |
LITERATURE
1. Рецкер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. Очерки лингвистической теории перевода / Я.И. Рецкер. – М.: Р.Валент, 2004. – 240 с.
2. Федоров Ф.В. Основы общей теории перевода (лингвистические проблеми / Ф.В. Федоров. - СП.: Филологический факультет СпбГУ; М.: ООО Издательский дом «ФИЛОЛОГИЯ ТРИ», 2002. - 416 с.
3. Baker Моnа. In other words. A coursebook on translation / Моnа Baker. - London. N.Y.: Routledge, 1992. - 304 p.
4. http://www.franko.lviv.ua/faculty/intrel/tpp/lecture_14.htm
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