UNIT 4 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY
Discuss the following questions in class:
| In my opinion ... To my mind ... I think that ... I’m of opinion that .. I think so because ... |
What is important for any science?
Can a science exist without theory?
What is more important for a science: theory or practice?.
Can practice exist without theory?
Give your reasons.
Text 1
Theoretical Paradigms
Ex. 1. Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into your native language:
To choose, to develop, to question, to answer, to build, to suggest, to interpret, to change, to divide, to define, to explain, to interact, to attempt, to emphasize, to investigate.
Ex. 2. Read the text and answer the following questions:
1. Who gave the definition of a theoretical paradigm?
2. How do sociologists understand the image of society?
3. Can we say that sociological theory is utter chaos?
In attempting to develop theories about human society, sociologists face a wide range of choices. What issues should they choose to study? What facts should they link together to form theories? Question such as this is not answered in a haphazard fashion; rather, theory building is guided by a general framework that sociologists call a theoretical paradigm. Following the ideas of George Ritzer (1983) a theoretical paradigm is a fundamental image of society that suggests what questions should be asked and how answers produced by research should be interpreted.
Although all sociologists make use of one general perspective, they do not all base their work on the same image of society. Some sociologists emphasize the fact that societies often remain remarkably stable over time; others focus on social change. Similarly, while some direct attention to ways in which people are united through their common membership in a single society, others emphasize how society divides people according to sex, race, or social class. Moreover, while some sociologists define their goal as explaining the operation of society as it exists, others attempt to encourage what they consider to be desirable social change. Finally, while some sociologists attempt to address the operation of society as a whole, others find the most interesting questions in the patterns of individual interaction within specific situations.
In short all sociologists do not agree about what the most interesting or useful questions are. Even when they do agree on the questions, they often disagree on the answers. This does not mean, however, that sociological theory is utter chaos, because sociologists tend to organize their work by using one or more of three major theoretical paradigms.
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Ex. 3. Read some information about the three theoretical paradigms and answer the following questions:
1. When did this theory appear or gained popularity?
2. Is it popular at present?
Text A
The Structural-Functional Paradigm
The structural-functional paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. As its name suggests, this paradigm points to the importance of social structure, meaning any relatively stable pattern of social behaviour. Social structure gives our lives shape in families, the workplace, or the college classroom. Second, this paradigm looks for any structure’s social functions, or consequences for the operation of society as a whole. All social patterns – from a simple handshake to complex religious rituals–function to keep society going, at least in its present form.
The structural – functional paradigm owes much to Auguste Comte, who pointed out the need for social integration during a time of rapid change. Emile Durkheim, who helped establish sociology in French universities, also based his work on this approach. A third structural – functional pioneer was the English sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903). Spencer compared society to the human body. Just as the structural parts of the human body – the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs – function together to help the entire organism survive, social structures work together to preserve society. The structural-functional paradigm, then, leads sociologists to identify various structures of society and to investigate their functions.
Critical evaluation. The chief characteristic of the structural-functional paradigm is its vision of society as stable and orderly. In the mid1900s, most sociologists favoured the structural-functional paradigm. In recent decades, however, its influence has declined. By focusing attention on social stability and unity, critics point out that structuralfunctionalism ignores inequalities of social class, race, ethnicity, and gender, which can generate considerable tension and conflict. In general, focusing on stability at the expense of conflict makes this paradigm somewhat conservative.
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Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences:
1. The structural-functional paradigm sees society as ....
2. This paradigm points to the ....
3. The first followers of this theory were such sociologists as ....
4. The structural-functional paradigm leads sociologists to ....
5. The drawback of this theory is that by focusing on social stability it ....
Text B
The Social-Conflict Paradigm
The social-conflict paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. Unlike the structural-functional emphasis on solidarity, this approach highlights inequality. Guided by this paradigm, sociologists investigate how factors such as class, race, ethnicity, gender, and age are linked to the unequal distribution of money, power, education, and social prestige.
Sociologists using the social-conflict paradigm look at ongoing conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people – the rich in relation to the poor, white people in relation to people of colour, or men in relation to women.
A conflict analysis of our educational system would explain how schooling perpetuates inequality by reproducing the class structure in every new generation. That is, secondary schools channel new students into either college-preparatory or vocational training programs. From a structural-functional point of view, such “tracking” benefits everyone by providing schooling that fits students’ abilities. But conflict analysis counters that tracking often has less to do with talent than with social background, so that well-to-do students are placed in higher tracks while poor children end up in lower tracks.
In this way, young people from privileged families get the best schooling, which serves as a springboard for high-income careers later on. The children of poor families, on the other hand, are not prepared for college and, like their parents before them, typically enter low-paying jobs.
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Critical evaluation. The social-conflict paradigm has gained a large following in recent decades, but, like other approaches, it has met with its share of criticism. Because the paradigm focuses on inequality, it largely ignores how shared values and interdependence can unify members of a society.
A final criticism of both the structural-functional and social-conflict paradigms is that they paint society in broad strokes – in terms of “family”, “social class”, “race”, and so on.
Ex. 5. Choose the correct item:
1. According to the social-conflict paradigm, society:
a) is full of solidarity and stability;
b) is unequal and that is the reason for conflict and change;
c) consists of broad patterns that shape it.
2. Sociologists following this paradigm study:
a) the interrelation between the inequality of class, race etc. and
money, power and so on;
b) social interaction in specific situations;
c) social structure.
3. This approach neglects:
a) inequalities of social class, race, ethnicity, and gender, which
can generate considerable tension and conflict;
b) macro-order and relations;
c) how common values and practices unite society members.
Text C
The symbolic-interaction paradigm
The structural-functional and social-conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation, meaning a concern with broad patterns that shape society as a whole. Macro-level sociology takes in the big picture, rather like observing a city from a helicopter and seeing how highways help people move from place to place or how housing differs in rich and poor neighbourhoods. Sociology also uses a micro-level orientation, a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations. Exploring urban life in this way occurs at street level, where perhaps one might watch how children invent games on a school playground or how pedestrians respond to homeless people. The symbolic-interaction paradigm, then, is a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals.
How does “society” result from the ongoing experiences of tens of millions of people? One answer is that society is nothing more than the reality people construct for themselves as they interact. That is, human beings are creatures who live in a world of symbols, attaching meaning to virtually everything. “Reality,” therefore, is simply how we define our surroundings, our obligations towards others, even our own identities.
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The symbolic-interaction paradigm has roots in the thinking of Max Weber (1864 – 1920), a German sociologist who emphasized understanding a setting from the point of view of the people in it. Since Weber’s time, sociologists have taken micro-sociology in a number of directions.
Critical evaluation. Without denying the existence of macro-level social structures such as “the family” and “social class”, the symbolic-interaction paradigm reminds us that society basically amounts to people interacting. That is, micro-level sociology tries to convey how individuals actually experience society. But the other side of the same coin is that, by emphasizing what is unique in each social scene, this approach risks overlooking the widespread effects of culture, as well as factors such as class, gender, and race.
Ex. 6. Provide answers to the following questions:
1. What is the gist of the symbolic-interaction paradigm?
2. What is society according to this theory?
3. Who can be regarded the beginner of this theoretical paradigm?
4. Do the followers of this theory deny the macro-order of society?
5. What are the disadvantages of this approach?
Ex. 7. Be ready to speak on:
1) The structural-functional paradigm.
2) The social-conflict paradigm.
3) The symbolic-interaction paradigm.
Ex. 8. You have just heard three reports. What paper do you think to be the best one? Give your arguments. Use the following:
I’d like to say that...
First of all, I want to say that...
I think it’s important to consider the question of...
What I think is...
I’m convinced that –
That’s an interesting point of view but...
I’d like to support the point of view about...
Text 2
Sociological Theory
Ex. 1. Before reading the text pay attention to the translation of the structures in the bold type in the following sentences:
1. The living standards of this country are not very high, nor is its economy.
2. Living in a large city does not necessarily result in social isolation, nor does it diminish mental health.
Ex. 2. Read the text and say if there can be only one theoretical explanation for a certain event or question:
The discipline of sociology involves more than a distinctive point of view. The sociological perspective illuminates new facts in countless familiar situations; but linking specific observations together in a meaningful way involves another element of the discipline, theory. In the simplest terms, a theory is an explanation of the relationship between two or more specific facts. To illustrate the use of theory in sociology, recall Emile Durkheim's study of suicide. Durkheim attempted to explain why some categories of people (males, Protestants, the wealthy, and the unmarried) have higher suicide rates than do others (females, Catholics, the poor, and the married). To do so, he linked one set of facts – suicide rates – to another set of facts – the level of social integration characteristic of these various categories of people. Through systematic comparisons, Durkheim was able to develop a theory of suicide, namely, that people with low social integration are more prone to take their own lives.
To provide another illustration, how might we explain the sociological observation that college science courses in the United States typically contain more men than women? One theoretical approach would suggest that the sciences are more attractive to males than to females; perhaps males simply have a greater inborn interest in science. Another possibility is that American society encourages males to develop an interest in science while simultaneously discouraging this interest in females. A third theoretical approach might suggest that the educational system has some formal or informal policy that limits the enrollment of women in science courses.
As this example suggests, there may be more than one theoretical explanation for any particular issue. Therefore, the ability to link facts together into a meaningful theory does not in itself mean that theory is correct. In order to evaluate contrasting theories, sociologists make use of various methods of scientific research.
As sociologists use these scientific methods to gather more and more information, they are able to confirm some theories while rejecting or modifying others. In the early decades of this century, several sociologists interested in the rapid growth of cities developed theories that linked city living to distinctive patterns of human behaviour such as pronounced impersonality and even mental illness. However, research completed during subsequent decades has found that living in a large city does not necessarily result in social isolation, nor does it diminish mental health. Within any discipline therefore, theory is never static, because sociologists are continually carrying out research, sociological theory is always being refined.
Ex. 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What is meant by theory?
2. What did E. Durkheim base his research on?
3. What is the essence of his suicide theory?
4. What sociological observation was made among college science students?
5. What do sociologists make use of to evaluate contrasting theories?
6. Is a theory static or changeable within any discipline?
7. Do you agree with the point that men are more prone to sciencestudy?
Ex. 4. Agree or disagree with the following:
1. The sociological perspective illuminates new facts in unfamiliar situations.
2. A theory is the explanation of the relationship between two ormore specific facts.
3. It is possible to develop a rational theory through systematicobservations and comparisons.
4. The ability to link facts together into a meaningful theory meansthat the theory is correct.
5. To evaluate contrasting theories sociologists make use of various methods of research.
6. Within any discipline theory is never static.
Ex. 5. Contradict the following statements:
1. People with low social integration are less prone to suicides.
2. Sciences are more attractive to males than to females.
3. Living in a large city results in social isolation.
Ex. 6. Divide the text into logical parts and make up a plan of the text.
Ex. 7. Speak on the text.
WORD STUDY
Ex. 1. Find in the text “Sociological Theory” English equivalents for:
Точка зрения; бесчисленный; набор фактов; а именно; более склонны; одновременно; любой частный вопрос; следовательно; для того чтобы; извлекать пользу; внутри; проводить исследование. Ex. 2. Find in the text antonyms for:
Indefinite, unfamiliar, meaningless, complex, to forget, similar, to be unable, repulsive, learned, to discourage, wrong, to accept a theory, late, slow, personality, to start.
Ex. 3. Fill in the blanks with the words given below in the brackets:
1. People... greatly... ... society since the beginning of human history.
2. Systematic studies of the society carried out by the social thinkers... ... ... appearing a new science – sociology.
3. They are planning... ... ... ... on the basis of a new scientific approach.
4. The scholars... primarily... ... the investigation of the sociological perspective.
5. Early sociologists... strongly... ... Comte’s ideas.
6. The scholars... constant... ... his ways of interpreting and analyzing new phenomena.
7. They always... scientific methods of investigation in any particular observation.
8. He... ... ... take part in the discussion concerning the operationof social laws within the society.
(to be influenced by, to encourage, to be interested in, to be concerned with, to make use of, to give rise to, to be prone to, to carry out research).
Ex. 4. Read and translate the following sentences taking into account different meanings of the word ‘experience’:
1. He experienced great hardships in the life, but in spite of that he continued his work in the field of sociological research.
2. They considered him to be a very experienced scholar as far the sociological perspective was concerned.
3. His experience was great and he readily encouraged such innovative strivings.
4. They experienced true feelings of friendship to each other and this devotion lasted all their life.
5. The situation was out of being ordinary and he understood herexperiences quite well.
6. Recent decades of our century experienced tremendous transformations in all spheres of the life.
7. He described the situation in such a way as if he experienced it himself.
8. His experience in this field was quite evident and nobody doubted it.
Ex. 5. Role-play.
You are being asked to make a report at the coming conference. You are prone to refuse, because you have never participated in such meetings. That is your first experience and you hesitate. But your friend is more optimistic and assures you there is nothing to be afraid of.
Use in your dialogue the following word-combinations: “to be interested in, to encourage, to carry out research, to make use of, to give rise to”.
Text 3
Special Sociological Theories
Pre-text Activities
Ex. 1. Read the international words and guess their meaning:
| complex | universalistic |
| extreme | bipolarity |
| illusion | tripolarity |
| fantasy | polypolarity |
| pluralism | interpretation |
Ex. 2. Look up the meanings of the following words in the dictionary:
Theory, sociological, research, consequence, to distinguish, transformation (transition), evil, obscure, visible/invisible, the Iron Curtain, simplistic, to suggest, suggestion.
Ex. 3. Give the corresponding verbs:
Interpretation, distortion, knowledge, suggestion, transformation.
Ex. 4. Give the corresponding nouns:
To determine, to apply, to select, to unify, to divide, to view.
Ex. 5. Match the English and Russian equivalents:
1) to predict consequences a) регионы с разной культурой
2) theoretical background b) руководить действиями
3) to make sense c) регионы с единой культурой
4) to be in focus d) предвидеть последствия
5) to guide actions e) быть в центре внимания
6) culturally unified regions f) переживать изменения
7) to experience changes g) теоретическая основа
8) culturally diversified regions h) иметь смысл, понять смысл
Ex. 6. Find in the text and read out the sentences that contain the above mentioned expressions.
Ex. 7. Read the text and say what special sociological theory has developed recently:
The role of theoretical background for a sociological research is of tremendous importance. In fact it predetermines what we select to examine in the first place and the range of possible explanations available for us.
If theory is understood not only as a system of law-like propositions, but as any set of ideas which can help make sense of a phenomenon, guide actions or predict a consequence, then one can distinguish at least four kinds of theory: social (scientific), normative, operational and everyday theory. Within the body of social (scientific) theory we can distinguish the whole range of special sociological theories.
Among special sociological theories there are such as: sociology of everyday life, sociology of education, sociology of religion, sociology of family, sociology of mass media, sociology of culture and so on. The one that has been developed quite recently is sociology of countries in transition.
The concept of transition (transformation) is extremely complex. In fact, it is as complex as the world it is applied to. Before 1989 people divided the whole Europe into simplistic East and West. Since 1989 we can not fully rely on this division; the world has lost its bipolarity and the consequences are not yet fully understood.
Before perestroika everything was quite simple. People from the East viewed the West as capitalistic, evil, but at the same time highly developed economically. People from the West, in their turn, viewed the East as dark, obscure and to some extent invisible behind the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. Invisibility left room for fantasies of all sorts.
Now we speak of Eastern, Central and Western Europe. But this new division is as simplistic as it was before. The former Eastern European bloc is as culturally diversified as Central European regions. And like Central and Eastern Europe, Western Europe is not culturally unified as it sometimes likes to suggest. There are very different countries also in Southern and Northern Europe. Europe is not simply moving from bipolarity to tripolarity. Polypolarity determines the complexity of transformations.
Central Europe and Eastern Europe are very much in focus. It is inevitably and rightly so. However, we should not forget that Central and Eastern European transformations are not isolated phenomena. We should not neglect what is happening elsewhere in other parts of the globe as a consequence of the sweeping changes we are observing here today. We are experiencing changes of worldwide scope.
Text-based Activities
Ex. 1. Correct the statements if they are not true.
1. The concept of transformation is not so complex as it may seem at first glance. 2. The world has always been split into two parts, and bipolarity is still its characteristic feature. 3. Eastern Europe is in the focus of sociologists’ attention nowadays.
Ex. 2. Answer the questions:
1. What special sociological theories do you know?
2. What can you say about the concept of transformation?
3. How was the world we live in interpreted before 1989?
4. In what way did people of the West view people of the Eastbefore 1989?
5. Can we speak about Western Europe as culturally unified?
6. What changes are we experiencing nowadays?
Ex. 3. Make a short summary of the text.
Text 4
Practical Implications of Sociology
Pre-text Activities
Ex. 1. Before reading the text look up the meanings of the following words in the dictionary:
To imply, implication, to contribute to, poor, poverty, to attempt, accurate, to exist, existence, to discard, a prejudice, rapid
Ex. 2. Derive nouns from the following verbs with the help of the given suffixes and translate them into Russian:
-er: to organize, to work, to use, to interview, to employ, to read, to begin;
-ism: real, social, tour;
-(t)ion: to imagine, to affect, to associate, to investigate, to communicate;
-ment: to improve, to involve, to agree, to move, to employ; -(i)ty: ethnic, personal, active.
Ex. 3. Derive adjectives from the following verbs with the help of the given suffixes and translate them into Russian:
-able (-ible): remark, read, sense;
-(u)al: nature, profession, economic, intellect; -ic: sociology, terminology, period; -ous: autonomy, fame, continue.
Ex. 4. Derive adverbs from the following adjectives with the help of the suffix -ly and translate them into Russian:
Individual, common, social, strict, real, personal, potential, deep, true.
Ex. 5. Translate the following sentences paying attention to different meanings of the words it and one:
1. The City of London had walls around it at one time. 2. It is hard to believe that at one time even the King had to knock at the City gate and wait for the permission to enter. 3. It is at night that the West of London is full of life. 4. Small towns in Britain differ from the traditional ones in other countries. 5. One should remember that the monarchy in Britain is constitutional.
Ex. 6. Read the text and say how sociological theory can be applied in practice:
One thinks that sociology has to deal with practical life. And for sure sociology has practical implications for our lives. It is policy-making and social reform that sociology can contribute to. Sociologists say that this science can provide clearer and more adequate understanding of what is going on in the society. It can do it in two ways:
– on the level of factual knowledge (giving an answer to the ques-tion what in particular is happening);
– theoretical understanding (giving an answer to the question whyit is happening).
We can see that a greater proportion of the population is living in poverty. Any attempt to change the situation will be successful only if it is based on accurate rather than false information. The more we understand why poverty remains widespread, the more likely we can change the situation.
One can see that sociology aids in practical policy-making. It does it through helping to see the existence of different cultural values in the structure of the society. To make the world better it is necessary to discard prejudices which groups hold towards one another.
Changing in our social world for the past two decades has become so rapid that most people are amazed by recent events. The energy crisis has transformed global economies; new technologies have changed the workplace; the communist world is becoming radically reorganized; and a complex interdependent world means that the changes in one country cause changes in other countries. The world turns to sociologists for interpretation, explanation, making prognosis for future.
Text-based Activities Ex. 1. Answer the questions on the text:
1. In what ways can sociology contribute to practical policy-making?
2. How can sociology provide clearer and more adequate understanding of what is going on in the society?
3. What proportion of the population live in poverty nowadays?
4. Under what conditions can an attempt to change the economicsituation be successful?
5. Do different cultural values exist in the structure of the society?
6. How can we make the world better?
7. What changes have taken place in our social world for the pasttwo decades?
Ex. 2. Complete the following sentences:
1. Sociology has ... .
2. It can contribute to ... .
3. This science can ... .
4. It is important to base your research on ... .
5. The world turns to sociologists for ... .
Test translation
1. Одни социологи подчеркивают, что определенные обществаостаются удивительно неизменными с течением времени, другие акцентируют внимание на социальных переменах.
2. В то время как одни ученые пытаются изучать, как обществофункционирует в целом, другие находят самые интересные факты в моделях межличностного взаимодействия в определенных ситуациях.
3. Парадигма символического интеракционизма берет началов работах Макса Вебера.
4. Третья теоретическая парадигма рассматривает обществокак повседневные взаимодействия людей.
5. Ученый смог разработать теорию благодаря систематическим сопоставлениям.
6. Научные методы исследования помогают социологамподтверждать одни теории и опровергать или видоизменять другие. 7. Они считали его очень опытным ученым.
8. Эмиль Дюркгейм связал один набор фактов – показателисамоубийств – с другим – уровнем социальной интеграции, характерной для этих различных категорий людей.
9. Трудно руководить действиями или предвидеть последствия,когда предрассудки в обществе имеют смысл.
10. В центре внимания находятся и регионы с разнойкультурой, и регионы с единой культурой.
Here is the list of words you have learnt in unit 4:
to choose the Iron Curtain
choice simplistic
to develop to predict consequences development theoretical background
to (a) question culturally diversified regions
to (an) answer to be in focus to build to guide actions building culturally unified regions to suggest to experience changes suggestion to make sense to interpret to imply interpretation implication to change to contribute to
a change poor
to divide poverty division accurate to define to exist definition existence to explain to discard explanation a prejudice to interact rapid
interaction point of view to (an) attempt countless to emphasize set of facts
emphasis namely
to investigate to be prone to smth
investigation simultaneous (-ly)
theory issue
theoretical therefore background in order to sociological to make use of
research within
consequence to carry out research to distinguish particular
transformation (transition) (un-) familiar
evil to recall
obscure to complete
visible/invisible
GRAMMAR EXERCISES
The Passive A.
Ex. 1. Complete the sentences with am/are/is.
Pattern: A lot of paper is made from wood.
1. What ... this called in English?
2. I ...paid on the first of every month.
3. Jane ... often sent to the Singapore office.
4. ... any classes taught on Wednesdays?
5. More chocolate ... eaten in the US than in any other country.
6. Not very much ... known about Shakespeare's childhood.
7. We ... woken by the birds every morning.
8. ... you seen by the same doctor every week?
Ex. 2. Put simple present passive verbs into these sentences.
Pattern: A lot of olive oil is in Greek cooking, (use)
1. Arabic ... from right to left. (write)
2. Those programmes ... by millions of people every week. (watch)
3. Stamps ... in most newsagents in Britain. (sell)
4. The police say that nothing ... about the child's family. (know)
5. In English, ‘ough’ ... in a lot of different ways. (pronounce)
6. Spanish ... in Peru. (speak)
7. Cricket ... by two teams of eleven players. (play)
8. Our windows ... once a month. (clean)
Ex. 3. Make simple present negatives and questions.
Pattern: “Jaguar cars are not made in America”. (not make) “Where are they made?” “In the UK”.
1. “My name ... with a Y”. (not spell)
2. “How ...”. “L, E, S, L, I, E”.
3. “That kind of bird ... around here”. (not usually see)
4. “Where ...”. “In warmer countries”.
5. “Where ... like were”. (not pronounce)
6. “How ...”. “Like wear”.
7. “Diamonds ... in Scotland”. (not find)
8. “Where ... “. “In South Africa, for example”.
9. “My sister ... very well”. (not pay) 10. “How much ...”. “I don’t remember”.
Ex. 4. Here are some sentences from radio news broadcasts. Put in the correct verbs.
Arrive close die leave marry stop
Pattern: England footballers ... arrive ... back in Britain after their match in Rome.
1. Singer Alex Haverty ... his long-time girlfriend Katy Bowen.
2. Charles Blackstock, Member of Parliament for East Chilbury,at the age of 57.
3. Once again, bad weather ... the tennis final at Wimbledon.
4. The Foreign Minister ... London for a two-day visit to Berlin.
5. Heavy snow ... hundreds of roads in Scotland.
Ex. 5. Complete the sentences with was/were.
1. The fire ... seen in Renton, a kilometre away.
2. Most of the matches ... won by Indian teams.
3. These keys ... found in the changing room – are they yours?
4. We couldn’t find the station, but we ... helped by a very kindwoman.
5. I ... stopped by a policeman in Green Road this morning.
6. Yesterday a man ... caught trying to burn down the Town Hall.
Ex. 6. Put simple past passive verbs into these sentences.
1. Our passports ... by a tall woman in a uniform. (take)
2. These books ... in the classroom yesterday. (leave)
3. I don’t think this room ... yesterday. (clean)
4. We ... at the airport by a driver from the university. (meet)
5. Nobody ... what was happening. (tell)
6. He ... away to school when he was twelve. (send)
Ex. 7. Make simple past passive negatives and questions.
Pattern: “We... weren’t paid when we finished the work”. (not par) “When were you paid?”. “Two months later”.
1. “My father ... in England”. (not educate) “Where ...”. “In Germany”.
2. “The letters ...on Tuesday”. (not post) “When ...”. “On Thursday”.
3. “This ... in butter”. (not cook)
“How ... ?” “In margarine?” 4. “My suit ... in England”. (not make) “Where ... “. “In Hong Kong”.
5. “The restaurant bill ... in cash”. (not pay) “How ...”. “With a credit card”. B.
Ex. 1. Questions and answers. Use the words in the box to complete answers to the questions. Use the present progressive passive.
grass / cut I / send it / clean/ ray hair / cut she / interview watch / repair
Pattern: “Can we play on the football pitch?” “No, the grass is being cut”.
1. “Can’t you wear your blue suit tonight?” “No, ...”.
2. “Did Alice get that new job?” “Not yet – ... today”.
3. “What time is it?” “Sorry, I don’t know: ...”.
4. “Why the big smile?” “... to Hawaii for a week”.
5. “I usually read a magazine while ...”.
Ex. 2. News: put the verbs into the present perfect passive.
Pattern: A new university has been opened in Кew today by the Prince of Wales. (open)
1. Lord Retlaw ... for drunk driving. (arrest)
2. An old painting from a school in Wales ... (for $250.000) by anAmerican museum. (buy)
3. An 18-year-old soldier ... in an accident in Davon. (kill) 4. The two lost children ... alive and well in a London park. (find) 5. An unknown actor ... to star in the new film of “Macbeth”. (choose)
Ex. 3. Fill in the gaps with the correct passive tense of the verbs in brackets.
1. A. These flowers are great.
B. They...were sent... (send) to me yesterday by one of my fans.
2. A. Have you ever appeared on TV?
B. Actually, I ... (recently/ask) to take part in a show.
3. A. When will I have my car?
B. It ... (deliver) to your house the day after tomorrow.
4. A. So, when did they tell you about the robbery?
В. I ... (inform) by the police as soon as they found out.
5. A. Why can’t we go over the bridge?
B. Because it ... (repair) at the moment.
6. A. I’m tired.
B. So am I. But these reports must ... (type) before we leave.
7. A. Who looks after your baby when you’re at work?B. Well, he ... (look after) by my mother.
8. A. Those pictures are beautiful.
B. They ... (paint) by my father while he was on holiday last summer.
9. A. Who does the washing-up in your house?
B. The dishes ... (wash) by my brother and then they ... (dry) by my sister.
10. A. Why can’t I use your car?
B. Because it ... (service) at the moment. You can take Mum’s car if you want.
11. A. Did you post the letters?
B. No, they ... (already/post) by the time I came in.
12. A. What will happen to the criminals?B. They ... (punish) for their crimes.
13. A. That’s a very pretty tablecloth.
B. It ...(give) to me last year for my birthday.
14. A. Have you moved house yet?
B. Yes. The last boxes ... (just/move).
15. A. Have you heard about Jack?
B. Yes, he ... (promote) to senior manager.
Ex. 4. Rewrite the sentences in the passive.
1. The pop star sang the song. ... The song was sung by the pop star ... .
2. The chef hasn’t made dinner.
3. An explorer has found a dinosaur egg.
4. Mrs. Gates will look after the baby.
5. They won’t take him home after the party.
6. Someone left the front door open.
7. Jenny didn’t break the window.
8. Someone is using the computer.
9. His brother taught him to drive.
10. Many people speak English.
11. The doctor had already told him to go on a diet.
12. The author is writing a new book.
Ex. 5. Translate the following sentences with Passive Voice:
1. In ancient times science was treated simply as a system of statements.
2. This simple rule is followed by the majority of authors.
3. This problem has been approached by many scholars on variousgrounds in different countries.
4. The method I have been describing in the text is, of course, onethat is followed by all of us.
5. Men are distinguished from other forms of life on earth by theirsocial production of the material means of life.
6. Sensations are not merely passively received, but are obtainedin the course of human activity.
7. Two answers have been given to this question, neither of themsatisfactory.
8. The investigations of living organisms showed how all forms oflife are developed from cells.
9. Most of the studies have been based primarily on subjectiveopinion regarding the relationship of attitudes to the job.
10. Special attention is being given to this phenomenon.
11. Careful consideration has been given to this area of researchcommunications.
12. The problem cannot be finally solved.
13. Hypotheses have to be tested by all means.
14. All knowledge must be based on sense-impressions, on theevidence of the senses, on observation.
15. A person's roles are to be understood in the light of his ownpattern of hereditary and environmental influences.
16. There are circumstances which cannot be avoided.
17. Certain acts are labelled criminal and are punished; certainothers though not punished by law are labelled wicked.
18. The individual has to be identified in the situation, before anysituation can be referred – as in psychology – to the individual.
19. Nearly all people in the world are being used, with or withouttheir knowledge, in the struggle between ideologies.
20. There are books which are still being reprinted, read and enjoyed, but it may be doubted that many of them will survive the century.
21. It is never known whether the subject is being given the control or experimental conditions.
22. Specialized clinics for the children suffering from mental disorders were being founded in this country.
23. Ideas from medical sciences, especially from physiology andneuroanatomy, are continually being used by psychologists.
24. The subjects were told to write as many answers as possible.
25. Individual case histories of children and grown-ups who arebeing medically treated by psychiatrists show that environment affects the development of personality characteristics. C.
Ex. 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct passive tense.
1. A. Who looks after your garden for you?
B. It... is looked after... (look after) by my brother.
2. A. That’s a beautiful dress. Where did you buy it?B. Actually, it ... (make) for me by my aunt.
3. A. Have you typed that letter yet, Miss Brown?B. It ... (type) right now, sir.
4. A. Did you make the coffee when you got to work this morning?B. No, it ... (already/make) by the time I got there.
5. A. Are you going to pick up the children today?
B. No, they ...(pick up) by Roger. I’ve already arranged it
6. A. Where is your watch?
В. I broke it. It ... (repair) at the moment.
7. A. Has the new furniture for my bedroom arrived?
B. No, it ... (not/deliver) yet.
8. A. They are building a new sports centre in town. В. I know. It ... (open) by the mayor next month.
Ex. 2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct in the passive tense.
A. Do you still work at Browns and Co?
B. Yes, I do. I 1)... have been employed... (employ) by Mr. Brown for five years now, you know.
A. Oh. Do you still enjoy it?
B. Oh yes! I 2) ... (give) a promotion last year and I’m very happy.
A. A promotion? So, what is your job now?
В. I 3) ... (make) Head of European Sales.
A. So, what do you do?
B. Well, sometimes I 4) ... (send) to other countries on business.
A. I see. Do they pay you well?
B. Well, I 5) ... (pay) quite well and I expect I 6) ...(give) a pay risesoon.
A. Good for you!
Ex. 3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct active or passive tense.
Wine 1)... is made... (make) all over the world, but no two wines ever taste the same. Wine has three main ingredients: water, sugar and alcohol, and 2) ... (come) in three colours, red, rose and white. To make wine, grapes 3) ... (grow) in vineyards. When the 4) ... (be) ripe, they 5) ... harvest) and 6) ... (crush). Then, sulphur dioxide 7) ... (add) to the crushed grapes, and they 8) ... (leave) in large barrels to ferment. During fermentation, the temperature must 9) ... (control) and air must 10) ... (keep out) of the barrels. When the temperature process is finished, the wine 11) ... (extract). Then, after it 12) ... (purify), it 13) ... (put) into bottles. Bottled wine should always 14) ... (store) at the right temperature and protected from light. It should also not be moved. The reason for looking after wines so carefully is that some wines not only taste better as they 15) ... (become) older, but they also 16) ... (increase) in value.
Ex. 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct active or passive tense. A. Did you visit many places when you were on holiday?
B. Well, on the first day we 1)... were taken... (take) on a tour of the historic monuments by our guide.
A. Oh. Did you go everywhere with him?
B. No, we also 2) ... (go) to some places by ourselves.
A. How did you manage to travel to the other places?
B. We 3) ... (advise) to hire a car, but we 4) ... (choose) to travel onpublic transport because it is much cheaper.
A. How did you know which buses and trains to catch, though?
B. We 5) ... (ask) at the tourist information centre and we 6) ... (give)an excellent book which 7) ... (tell) us everything we needed to know. A. So, you enjoyed it then?
B. Oh, yes! We had a really great time!
Ex. 5. Choose the correct answer.
1. Was Tom pleased with the newspaper article about him?
No. He was angry because his name... B... wrong. A. spelt В. had been spelt С. is spelt
2. Did you buy that picture?
No, it ... to me for my birthday.
A. was given В. gave С. is given
3. Are you going to buy a wedding dress? No. My dress ... by my mother.
A. is being made В. is made С. made
4. Have you arranged the party yet? Yes. All the invitations ... .
A. are sent B. have been sent С. sent 5. So, have you had your book published?
Yes. It ... in all bookshops from June 1st.
A. will be В. is С. is being
6. Do your cats eat a lot?
No. They ... once a day, that’s all.
A. is fed В. are fed С. fed
7. Paul is taking me to a ball this weekend. I would love ... to a ball!
A. take В. to take С. to be taken
8. Did you hear about the burglary last week? Yes. The thieves ... now, haven’t they?
A. have been caught В. caught С. are caught
9. Can you swim?
Oh yes. I ... how to swim when I was five.
A. taught В. am taught С. was taught 10. Doctors have to do a lot of work. Yes, but they ... well.
A. be paid В. are paid С. pay
11. Where does that lady keep her jewellery? It ... in a safe somewhere in her house.
A. is kept В. are kept С. was kept 12. What is happening over there? Oh, a new cinema ... .
A. is being built В. is built С. was built 13. How is Kevin?
Well, his car ... last night, so he’s upset today.
A. is stolen В. has been stolen С. was stolen
14. What should you do if you are lost?
You should stay where you are and wait ... .
A. was found В. to find C. to be found 15. Have you got Claire’s phone number? Yes. It ... on this piece of paper.
A. is written В. written С. be written Ex. 6. Translate into English.
1. Мне показали, как это было сделано. 2. О ней очень хорошо отзываются. 3. Ей объяснили, как пользоваться этим устройством (device). 4. Вода в квартире была выключена, и послали за сантехником (plumber). 5. В библиотеке ему предложили целый ряд статей на интересующую его тему. 6. Можно ли положиться на эти цифры? 7. Мне много раз повторяли, что мне надо бросить (give up) курить. 8. Задавали ли вам дополнительные вопросы на экзамене? 9. Их тепло поблагодарили за помощь. 10. Ему посоветовали побольше бывать на воздухе. 11. Надо положить конец этим бесполезным спорам. 12. Вас не будут просить выступать. 13. Почему вам запретили играть в футбол? 14. Когда вам продиктовали это письмо? Ex. 7. Dictation-Translation.
1. Детей часто водят (take) в кино и театр. 2. Ей объявили, что поезд уже ушел. 3. Его попросили не вмешиваться. 4. Ей задали несколько вопросов и велели подождать. 5. Будет ли нам предоставлен отдельный номер в отеле? 6. Его выбор был всеми одобрен. 7. В начальной школе (primary) детей учат читать и считать, с ними играют, их развлекают (entertain). 8. Ей продиктовали несколько писем. 9. Кому дадут эту работу? 10. Какие меры будут приняты? 11. Тогда как раз строилась школа. 12. Ну, что-нибудь уже решено? 13. Там за ним будет хороший уход. 14. Что говорили на эту тему? 15. Их учат английскому языку около года. 16. Когда это надо сделать? 17. Почему это нельзя сделать сегодня? 18. Когда вам сообщили это известие? 19. Почему ничего еще не сделано?
20. Чей фортепианный концерт сейчас исполняется?
Adjective. Adverb A.
Ex. 1. Form adjectives from the given words with the help of the suffixes.
Pattern: care a careful a careless; wool a woollen.
Use, frost, rain, rock, fog, snow, ice, sun, noise, speed, nature, trouble, hope, art, truth, possibility, beauty, insist, significance, shame.
Ex. 2. Form adjectives from the given ones with the help of the prefixes and point out the changes in meaning.
Pattern: urban a interurban
practical a impractical
Acceptable, national, continuous, possible, legal, appointing, complete, married, accurate, able, bearable, available, believable, conscious, stellar.
Ex. 3. Give the adjectives of the nationalities according to the models:
Pattern: Russia a Russian; England a English.
Europe, America, Asia, the Ukraine, Scandinavia, Australia, Poland, Finland, Spain, India, Canada, Egypt, Iran, Chile, Yugoslavia, Sweden, Rumania, Nigeria, Italy.
Ex. 4. Put the adverbs in the correct places.
1. Do you play cards? (often)
2. Have you been to Tibet? (ever)
3. Are you happy? (always)
4. Does the boss take a holiday? (ever)
5. Do you eat in restaurants? (usually)
6. Is Barbara ill? (still)
Ex. 5. Choose an adjective or an adverb.
Pattern: Could I have a quick word with you? (quick / quickly)
She walked away quickly. (quick / quickly)
1. This is a ... train – it stops everywhere. (slow / slowly)
2. He talked very ... about his work. (interesting / interestingly)
3. You’ve cooked the meat ... (beautiful / beautifully)
4. I’ve got an ... job for you. (easy / easily)
5. She Writes in ... English. (perfect / perfectly)
6. I sing very ... (bad /badly)
7. I feel ... today. (happy / happily)
8. You seem very ... (angry / angrily).
9. Anne’s ... a swimmer. (strong / strongly)
10. Could you talk more ... please? (quiet/quietly)
Ex. 6. Write the comparative and superlative forms of the fol-
| 1) Long longer longest 2) expensive 3) strong 4) difficult 5) intelligent 6) close 7) popular | 8) safe 9) important 10) loud weak 11) weak 12) tasty 13) comfortable 14) delicious |
lowing adjectives.
B.
Ex. 1. Underline the correct word.
1. A. I’m going to the shops now.
B. Make sure you carry the eggs careful / carefully. Don’t break them.
2. A. I’m going to Alison’s house for dinner tonight B. You’ll enjoy it. Alison is a very good/well cook.
3. A. Have you finished that puzzle already?B. Yes, it was really easy/easily.
4. A. Mr. Jones shouted angry/angrily today.
В. I know. He was in a very bad/badly mood all day.
5. A. Your mother is always cheerful/cheerfully, isn’t she? B. Yes, she is always in a well/good mood.
Ex. 2. Underline the correct word.
I organized a surprise party for my friend, Edith, last weekend. All the guests arrived early and waited 1) quiet/quietly until Edith got there. When she walked through the door, we all cheered 2) loud/loudly. We went into the garden because it was a very 3) warm/warmly day. The guests gave Edith 4) nice/nicely presents and Edith thanked them 5) sincere/sincerely. We danced 6) happily/happy to the music and had a 7) wonderful/wonderfully time. The party was 8) successful/successfully.
Ex. 3. Fill in the gaps with the comparative or superlative form of the adjectives/ adverbs in brackets.
A. Excuse me, is there a 1)... faster... (fast) way to Clovelly?
B. I you take that road, which is 2) ...(narrow) than the others, it’sonly 15 minutes’ walk. That’s the 3) ... (quick) way.
A. Ah, thanks. We’ve been walking for 35 minutes and we thoughtwe would get there 4)... (soon). We can’ even see Clovelly yet.
B. It’s hidden by the trees, they’re 5) (tall) than the houses. You’lllike Clovelly. It’s one of the 6) ...(beautiful) villages in north Devon.
A. That’s what we’ve heard. It has some of the 7) ...(pretty) hous-es, hasn’t it?
B. Yes, and the 8) ... (tasty) fish you’ve ever eaten!
A. Thank you very much for your help. Bye.
Ex. 4. Complete the sentences using “as... as”.
Pattern: The weather is still unpleasant today but yesterday it was worse. The weather isn’t as bad as it was yesterday.
I still smoke but I used to smoke a lot more. I don’t smoke as much as I used to.
1. I still feel quite tired but I felt a lot more tired yesterday. Idon’t.________________
2. I was a bit nervous before the interview but usually I’m a lotmore nervous. I wasn’t_____________
3. Volley-ball is popular but basketball is more popular in the US.
Volley-ball isn’t________________________
4. My father works much but he used to work much more when hewas younger. He doesn’t,______________
5. Basil is busy on Sundays. He is busier on week-days. Heisn’t__________________
Ex. 5. Make up negative sentences according to the model.
Pattern: My mother, my father, tall. a My mother is not so tall as my father.
1. The bus, the train, fast. 2. My flat, her flat, big. 3. His voice, Caruso’s, brilliant. 4. The pond, the river, deep. 5. Your typing, hers, fast. 6. This lecture, to lecture, interesting. 7. This hat, that hat, beautiful. 8. His article, her article, long.
C.
Ex. 1. Underline the correct item.
The house was 1) quiet/quietly. It had been snowing 2) heavy/heavily all day and the ground was covered in a 3) soft/softly white blanket. 4) Sudden/ Suddenly, there was a 5) loud/loudly knock at the door. I jumped up 6) nervous/nervously. “Who is it?” I called 7) anxious/anxiously. There was no reply. I 8) slow/slowly opened the door and looked outside. A rush of 9) cold/coldly air entered the house. I 10) quick/quickly shut the door and turned around, then I saw the most 11) horrible/horribly creature I had ever seen standing in front of me.
Ex. 2. Underline the correct item.
1. She lives very near/nearly to the school.
2. Jack near/nearly crashed his car yesterday.
3. The prisoners can move around free/freely.
4. I got this pen free/freely with a magazine.
5. His story sounds high/highly unlikely.
6. We could see the bird’s nest high/highly up in the tree.
7. Roger was late/lately for work every day last week.
8. I haven’t been feeling very well late/lately.
9. He tried hard/hardly to solve the problem, but couldn’t do it.
10. The music was so loud that I could hard/hardly what he was saying.
Ex. 3. Fill in the gaps with the comparative or superlative form of the adjectives in brackets, adding any necessary words.
Yesterday was 1) ... (cold) day of the year. It had been snowing all night and. everything was white. The children woke up 2) ... (early) usual. They were excited because the snow was 3) ... (deep) ever before and they wanted to go outside and play. We dressed them in 4) ...(warm) clothes we could find, then they went out into the garden. We watched from the window as they built 5) ...(big) snowman I have ever seen. As the snow was falling 6) ... (hard) ever, the children soon came inside to warm up. They were laughing as if they had heard 7) ...(funny) joke ever told. They said that they thought winter was 8) ...(good) season of all.
Ex. 4. Put the adjectives in brackets into the comparative or superlative form, adding any necessary words.
A. Well Mr. Jones, we’ve interviewed the three 1)... most likely... (likely) candidates. Who do you think would be 2) ...(good) person for the job?
В. I have to say, I thought Mrs. Shaw was 3) ... (intelligent) of the three, but Mr. Peters was a little 4) ... (nice) her.
A. That’s true, and we do need someone who can work with people. However, I thought Miss Brown would be 5) ...(popular) the others with our clients.
В. I also thought that she was by far 6) ...(responsible) candidate.
A. Good. Thank you for your help, Mr. Jones. Choosing who toemploy is 7) ... (difficult) part of my job. It's always 8) ...(easy) when I hear someone else’s views.
B. I’m glad I could help.
Ex. 5. Cross out the unnecessary word.
1. Mark’s voice is very much louder than Alan’s.
2. Mrs. Garrison is the most oldest teacher in the school.
3. This village is by far quieter than the one we live in.
4. Playing golf isn’t as more tiring as playing football.
5. As time went by, it got darker and the darker.
6. The more you study, the better than your marks will be.
7. This task is she less difficult than the others.
8. He drives the fat fastest of all.
9. Jane is as much tall as Sarah.
10. It was a quite an exciting film.
Ex. 6. Translate into English.
I. 1. Киев – более древний город, чем Москва; это один из древнейших городов России. 2. В XVI веке Испания была самой могущественной державой мира. 3. Волга длиннee Днепра; это самая длинная река Европы. 4. Ватикан – самое маленькое государство в Европе. 5. Советую вам пойти этой дорогой, а) Это самый короткий путь, б) Этот путь короче. 6. Эта проблема не так серьезна, как вам кажется. 7. Реферат должен быть по возможности короче и содержать лишь наиболее важные мысли автора. 8. Язык этой статьи полегче. Начните с нее. 9. Купите обои посветлее для вашей комнаты. Она тогда не будет выглядеть такой мрачной, как сейчас. 10. Нам нужен шкаф поменьше, так как комната небольшая.
II. 1. Сегодня не так тепло, как вчера. 2. Мария – наша старшая сестра. 3. Станция была не так далеко, как я думал. 4. На этот раз у вас меньше ошибок, чем было в прошлом сочинении. 5. Ждите дальнейших инструкций. 6. Этот отель не такой дорогой, как я предполагал. 7. Это мой лучший друг. 8. Ей столько же лет, сколько и мне. 9. Это последнее произведение писателя. 10. Дальнейшие подробности будут даны в следующий раз. 11. А нет ли дороги поближе? 12. Последний поезд прибывает в полночь. 13. Она на пять лет младше меня. 14. Я нашел его в самом дальнем углу парка.
15. Это самая короткая дорога до моря.
III. 1. Я не так молод, как вы, вы в два раза моложе. 2. Чем быстрее мы закончим работу тем лучше. 3. Комната почти квадратная, она немного больше в длину, чем в ширину 4. Это совершенно новый прибор, он может работать в три раза быстрее. 5. Новый аэропорт в три раза больше нашего старого. 6. У нашей бабушки очень высокое давление (blood pressure), она чувствует себя значительно хуже. 7. Самолет поднимался все выше и выше. 8. Ветер сегодня вдвое сильнее, чем вчера. 9. Чем реже они будут видеть вас здесь, тем лучше. 10. Чем богаче человек, тем более жадным (greedy) он становится. 11. Она не такой пунктуальный секретарь, как бы мне хотелось.
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