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Текст 5
Skyscrapers
1) What materials are modern skyscrapers built with?
2) Where are a lot of individual free-standing buildings?
3) What is the number of skyscrapers in Hong Kong?
A skyscraper is a very tall, continuously habitable building. There is no official definition or a precise cutoff height above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper. However, as per usual practice in most cities, the definition is used empirically, depending on the relative impact of the shape of a building to a city's overall skyline.
Modern skyscrapers are built with materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and granite, and routinely utilize mechanical equipment such as water pumps and elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare, as having great numbers of stairs to climb was impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply running water above 50 m (164 ft). Another early example of high-rise housing was in 17th-century Edinburgh, Scotland, where a defensive city wall defined the boundaries of the city. Due to the restricted land area available for development, the houses increased in height instead. Buildings of 11 stories were common, and there are records of buildings as high as 14 stories. Many of the stone-built structures can still be seen today in the old town of Edinburgh.
Still today no city in the world has more completed individual free-standing buildings over 492 ft. (150 m) than New York City. Hong Kong comes in with the most in the entire world, if one counts individually the multiple towers that rise from a common podium, in buildings that rise several stories as a single structure before splitting into two or more columns of floors. The number of skyscrapers in Hong Kong will continue to increase, due to a prolonged high-rise building boom and high demand for office and housing space in the area.
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Текст 6
Transportation engineering
1) What is the transportation engineering concerned with?
2) What can you say about Road-traffic safety?
3) Do you known the reasons of car crashes?
Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, urban engineering, queuing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.
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Road-traffic safety aims to reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) resulting from crashes of road vehicles. Harm from road-traffic crashes is greater than that from all other transportation modes (air, sea, space, off-terrain, etc.) combined.
Road-traffic crashes are one of the world’s largest public health and injury prevention problems. The problem is all the more acute because the victims are overwhelmingly young and healthy prior to their crashes. According to the World Health Organization more than a million people are killed on the world’s roads each year.
Road-traffic safety deals exclusively with road-traffic crashes – how to reduce their number and their consequences. A road-traffic crash is an event involving a road vehicle that results in harm. For reasons of clear data collection, only harm involving a road vehicle is included. A person tripping with fatal consequences on a public road is not included as a road-traffic fatality.
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Текст 7
Water Supply
1) Why were the inhabitants of ancient cities constrained to build aqueducts?
2) How did most citizens get water to their homes?
3) What were the problems of the waterworks engineer of ancient times?
Throughout recorded history large cities have been concerned with their water supplies. Even ancient cities found that local sources of supply—shallow wells, springs, and brooks—were inadequate to meet the very modest sanitary demands of the day, and the inhabitants were constrained to build aqueducts1 which could bring water from distant sources. Such supply systems could not compare with modern types, for only a few of the wealthier people had private taps in their homes or gardens, and most citizens carried water in vessels to their homes from fountains or public outlets. Medieval cities were smaller than the ancient cities, and public water supplies were practically nonexistent. The existing aqueducts of ancient Athens, Rome, and the Roman provincial cities fell into disuse, and their purposes were even forgotten.
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The waterworks engineer of ancient times labored under the severe handicap of having no type of pipe that could withstand even moderate pressures. He used pipe of clay. lead, and bored wood in small sizes, but even with these, as, with masonry aqueducts and tunnels, lie followed the hydraulic grade line and rarely
placed conduits under pressure.
In the seventeenth century the first experiments were made with cast-iron pipe but it was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that these pipes were cheap enough for wide use. The durability of cast iron and its freedom from breaks and leakages soon made its use almost universal, although steel and other materials were also used. This advance, together with improved pumping methods, made it economically possible for all but the smallest villages to obtain water supplies and to deliver the water into the homes of the citizens.
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