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Текст 8
Sewerage
1) What kind of sewers did Rome have?
2) When was the discharge of household wastes into the sewers of London forbidden?
3) What caused a sharp decline in the urban death rate?
Remains of sanitary sewers are to be found in the ruins of the ancient cities of Crete and Assyria. Rome also had sewers, but they were primarily drains to carry away storm water. It was the practice to deposit all sorts of refuse in the streets, and accordingly the storm sewers also carried much organic matter at times. Sewerage was practically unknown during the Middle Ages, and construction of sewers was not resumed until modern times. At first, these were storm sewers not intended to carry domestic sewage. As late as 1850, the discharge of household wastes into the sewers of London was forbidden. The water courses in or near towns apparently were used as convenient places of refuse disposal, for many writers comment upon the offensive condition of the London brooks, with their burden of dead dogs and filth t of all sorts. In the course of time it was recognized that sanitation would best be served by permitting the use of sewers to convey human excreta away from dwellings as promptly as possible, and the original storm drains became combined sewers which carried both storm-water runoff and the liquid wastes from occupied buildings. The development of water supplies, of course, played a large part in the greater use of plumbing systems with water-flush toilets. The commonly used vault toilets, which frequently overflowed and always produced odors, were soon legislated out of existence in the larger cities in favor of the water-carried system. This improvement together with safer water supplies caused a sharp decline in the urban death rate.
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Текст 9
Effects of Sanitary Engineering upon City Life
1) What did the bills of mortality of London in the 17th century indicate?
2) What was the first municipal sanitary improvement?
3) Who has established water quality standards for public water supplies?
The bills of mortality of London in the seventeenth century, which were the vital statistics of the day, indicate that the death rate in large cities at that time was greater than the birth rate. Cities, therefore, grew slowly and only by migration from country to city. This condition can be ascribed to prevailing insanitary conditions combined with crowding of people into a small area and the resulting prevalence of communicable disease. The first municipal sanitary improvement both in England and elsewhere was the construction of water supplies which, in large cities, were soon followed by sewerage. Small cities and towns have also installed waterworks and sewerage systems during the last few decades until, at the present time, there are few communities that do not have a public water supply and in most cases a sewer system.
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The construction grants program of EPA and. earlier, the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (FWPCA), under which the construction of sewage works is largely financed by federal funds, has hastened the construction of collection and treatment systems in communities which had lacked them.
EPA is also charged with ensuring the provision of suitable drinking water and. as successor to the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) is conducting research into the health effects of minute concentrations of various contaminants and has established water quality standards for public water supplies.
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