Write a 250-word argumentative essay on one of the topics given below. Before writing the essay study Appendix 4.
1. All individuals acting out of selfishness will result in the greatest good for the society as a whole. It is in line with values of any sort of religion. Selfishness would be a good thing to base a society on.
2. Society is a moral community.
3. Human beings act towards things on the basis of the meaning that these things have for them.
4. “If we understand the mechanism and motives of the group mind, is it not possible to control and regiment the masses according to our will without their knowing about it?” (Edward Bernays, “the father of public relations”).
5. Incarceration is one of the most blatant tools of social control.
6.Countries with the least punitive sanctions are those that are most highly developed and the least totalitarian.
7. Deviance is seen as a social process.
8. Deviants are different to “normal” people.
9. Deviant behavior is one of the most precise barometers of the social, political and moral climate in a society.
10. Systems of social control have developed as a combination of evolutionary human traits, institutional structures, and outright conspiratorial machinations.
DIALOGUES
Dialogue 1
Read and translate the following dialogue:
Sociological Theories to Explain Deviance
| A. | Good morning, Mr B. Pleased to meet you. |
| B. | Good morning, Mr A. I’m also very glad to meet you again. If you don’t objectI’d like to resume our conversation about social theories to explain deviance. |
| A. | OK. Let’s get down to business. There are many social theories on deviance. Conflict Theory, for instance, suggests that deviance stems from the conflicting values present in capitalist society and the power struggle it creates. Symbolic Interactionism Theory is based on the idea that we are all deviant and that the only difference us that some of us get caught while others do not. |
| B. | Definitely. Now that you’ve brought up the matter, I’d like to mention Cultural Transmission Theory which suggests that all behavior is learned; therefore deviant behavior is also learned. The theory focuses on the key variables involved in learning. |
| A. | If I’m not mistaken, these variables are: |
| · | · age of the "learner"; |
| · | · intensity of contact with the deviant "teacher"; |
| · | · ratio of "good" to "bad" social contacts in the "learner's" life. |
| B. | Quite precise. Theory predicts that the younger the "learner" is, in an intense relationship with the deviant "teacher", and the more contacts with significant others who are "deviant", then the greater the likelihood the "learner" will also be deviant. The reverse is also true. |
| A. | At this point we must consider Control Theory. This theory asks a different question than most of the others; it does not ask "why does someone commit deviance?" but rather control theory asks "why do most of us not commit deviance?" In other words, why do most of us, most of the time, act "correctly?" |
| B. | As far as I know, the theory answers that question this way: "normal behavior" is shaped by the power of social control mechanisms in our culture. Put differently, the social bonds that connect people help to keep us from committing deviance. |
| A. | Absolutely right in every detail. The basic social factors or components of a social bond between individuals are the following |
| · | attachment, i.e. a measure of the connectedness between individuals; |
| · | commitment, i.e. a measure of the stake a person has in the community; |
| · | involvement, i.e. a measure of the time or energy a person is spending on activities that are helpful to the community; |
| · | belief, i.e. a measure of the person's support for the morals and beliefs of the community. |
| B. | Fair enough. Let’s pass over to the Labeling Theory. It is noteworthy that the title of "labeling theory" can be a bit misleading, so be careful here. Labeling theorists say that labeling is a social fact, especially when we talk about social institutions like law enforcement, social service agencies, and mental health facilities. So, therefore, they study the power of labels in our society. Besides, note that this theory combines two theoretical perspectives: conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. |
| A. | Let me clarify that the theory explains deviance as a social process whereby some people are able to define others as deviant. It emphasizes that the deviance is relative: it is not until a label is given to someone by someone else in a position of social power that the person actually "becomes" a deviant. |
| B. | At this point we have to bear in mind that it has some important terms linked to the theory: |
| - primary deviance, i.e. behavior that does not conform to the social norms, but the behavior might be temporary, fleeting, exploratory, trivial, or especially, concealed from most others. The person who commits the deviant act does not see him/herself as deviant; put differently, it is not internalized as a part of the person's self-concept; | |
| - secondary deviance, i.e. behavior that does not conform to the social norms, but the behavior tends to be more sustained over time. The person continues to do the deviant behavior even after being caught and labeled by a social institution. The person accepts the deviant label, incorporating it into the person's self-concept; | |
| - deviant career, i.e. continued secondary deviance, that becomes one's "job" and becomes one's primary economic activity. Person accepts the deviant label; | |
| - radical non-intervention, which is labeling theory's solution, at least to juvenile deviance. It has two parts: first, preferably do not label anyone, especially, not a juvenile. Sociology knows that many adolescents reduce or stop their deviance as they become adults and accept adult statuses and roles. So, labeling them might in fact prevent that "becoming good" transition as they become adults; second, if anyone has to be labeled, label fairly, that is don't "peak" and notice social class, race, sex, etc., and, therefore, label some individuals differently than others. | |
| B. | Thank you for you most useful comments. As a matter of fact, there also exists Structural Strain Theory, sometimes called Anomie Theory, whichexplains deviance as the outcome of social strains due to the way the society is structured. For some people, the strain becomes overwhelming to the point where they do deviance as a way to manage the strain. Often their deviance is due to their feelings of anomie, meaningless due to not understanding how the social norms are to effect them. |
| A. | Could you be more specific, please? |
| B. | It isn’t as easy as that. I mean, this is usually because the norms are weak, confusing, or conflicting. There is a social consensus in the society about socially approved goals that each person ought to strive for and the socially approved of means to attain those goals. This consensus is largely due to a shared value system in the society. |
| A. | I’m clear now. Thank you very much for putting me into the picture. To finalize the matter I suggest considering Medicalization of Deviance Theory. |
| B. | Well, the theory argues that in the last 100 plus years, there has been a shift in which social institution primary is associated with the labeling/"handling" of deviance and deviants. In earlier times in Western Europe and America, the religious institutions had the social power to define/label deviant behavior and to "treat" it (e.g., exorcisms, etc.). But now science and especially medicine has taken over much of the social control processing of deviants. |
| A. | It is argued by those who support the theory that this shift is a more humane way of understanding deviant behavior. People are not "evil" but they are "sick." However, the "sick" label still has social consequences that "stick" to the person so labeled. Some of these consequences are: |
| · | it absolves one of responsibility for the deviant behavior; |
| · | there is little or no stigma (so the theory claims) to the label of sick; |
| · | if the person fulfills the "sick role" appropriately, he or she is able to not receive a harsh negative label. But the sick role is a role and has a complicated behavioral set that the person has to follow or else; |
| · | the key part of the sick role is that one has to accept that medical perspective is "correct" and therefore anything prescribed by physicians must be done; |
| · | a more optimistic view of deviance. |
| B. | I’m very grateful to you for the opportunity to learn more about these significant points. |
| A. | I’m always at your service. I believe we’ve touched a lot of major points concerning sociological theories which explain deviance. Let’s have a rest, shall we? |
Task 1 . Report the dialogue. Use the following reporting verbs:
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| · to inform | · to clarify |
| · to stress | · to mention |
| · to confirm | · to make it clear |
| · to explain | · to finalize the matter |
Task 2. Work with a partner. Look at the dialogue and discuss what A. and B. say about the sociological theories which explain deviance .
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a) Symbolic Interactionism Theory;
b) Conflict Theory;
c) Cultural Transmission Theory;
d) Control Theory;
e) Labeling Theory;
f) Structural Strain Theory;
g) Medicalization of Deviance Theory.
Task 3. Do it in English :
A .
1 основные переменные, связанные с обучением
2 обратное также является верным
3 нормы нравственного поведения и убеждения сообщества
4 приводящий к неверному толкованию
5 правоохранительные органы и система социального обслуживания населения
6 временное, скоротечное, поисковое, обычное поведение
7 быть воспринятым как часть оценки человеком собственной личности
8 проявлять тенденцию к устойчивости
9 отклоняющееся поведение несовершеннолетних
10 подростки …становятся взрослыми и соглашаются с положением…
11 напряжение становится непомерным
12 слабые, вносящие путаницу, противоречивые нормы
13 согласие в обществе
14 стремиться к социально одобряемым целям
15 средства достижения целей
16 более гуманный способ восприятия
17 избавлять от ответственности
18 (зд.) получить резко негативную оценку (клеймо)
B .
Существуют четыре наиболее распространенных социологических подхода к проблеме девиации: теория аномии, теория культурного переноса, теория конфликта и теория стигматизации.
Теория аномии.
Э. Дюркгейм утверждал, что девиация играет функциональную роль в обществе, поскольку девиация и наказание девианта способствуют осознанию границ того, что считается допустимым поведением, и выполняют роль факторов, побуждающих людей подтвердить свою приверженность моральному порядку общества. Дюркгейму принадлежит идея аномии - общественного состояния, которое характеризуется разложением системы ценностей, обусловленных кризисом всего общества, его социальных институтов, противоречием между провозглашенными целями и невозможностью их реализации для большинства.
Теория культурного переноса.
Ряд социологов подчеркивает сходство между способом выработки девиантного поведения и способом выработки любого другого стиля поведения. Иначе говоря, молодые люди становятся правонарушителями, потому что общаются и заводят дружбу с теми подростками, у которых криминальные модели поведения уже укоренились. Социолог Вальтер Б. Миллер, основываясь на этом принципе, провел исследования девиантного поведения в среде молодежи из низших социальных слоев. Он определял их поведение как адаптацию к культурным образцам, приобретенным такими людьми в процессе их социализации в гетто и внутригородской среде
Теория конфликта.
Сторонники теории культурного переноса подчеркивают, что для индивидов, принадлежащих к различным субкультурам, характерны несколько различающиеся модели поведения, поскольку процесс их социализации базируется на различных традициях. Совершенно очевидно, что составляют законы и обеспечивают их исполнение облеченные властью индивиды и социальные группы. Вследствие этого законы не являются нейтральными, но служат интересам определенной социальной группы и выражают основные ее ценности.
Теория стигматизации.
Согласно теории стигматизации, девиация определяется не самим поведением, а реакцией общества на такое поведение. Теория стигматизации, не концентрирует внимания на причинах совершения девиантных поступков, но помогает понять, почему один и тот же поступок может рассматриваться как девиантный или нет, в зависимости от ситуации и характеристик индивида, о котором идет речь.
Таким образом, ни одна социологическая теория не способна дать полного объяснения девиантному поведению. Каждая высвечивает какой-то один важный источник отклонения поведения от нормы. А девиантное поведение может принимать множество форм. Поэтому следует тщательно анализировать каждую форму девиации для определения задействованных в ней специфических факторов.
Task 4. Use Supporting Materials below to continue the dialogue about Conflict Theory. Make use of the underlined helpful phrases from Dialogue 1.
SUPPORTING MATERIALS
Conflict Theory
Why are some people's behaviors more apt to be negatively labeled by the criminal justice system? While labeling theorists point to the role of moral entrepreneurs or social movements, for the conflict theorists the answer has to do with the balance of power and privilege in society. Everything from material goods to quality education to religious freedom is in short supply, and therefore the typical relationship among groups in society is competition and conflict. Conflict theorists are typically categorized according to which inequalities they prioritize.
Marxist theory. Marx gives priority to economic inequalities. In his view, all societies are marked by the conflict of social classes, sometime overt, sometimes hidden, but always the major source of stability and change in society. Those who control the productive property of any society (land, factories, equipment) use their economic power to dominate other spheres--culture, religion, education, politics, and certainly the criminal justice system. There may be laws that benefit everybody, but mostly "the general interest" is a fiction that covers up class interest. "Justice" and "fair play" are public relations for a system that actually protects private property and treats transgressions against the upper classes much more seriously than transgressions against the lower classes.
Steven Spitzer points out that a capitalist economy, by its very nature, creates a surplus population. As businesses compete with one another, the successful capitalist will be the one who is the most technologically innovative. Advanced technology (i.e., automation) allows skilled workers to be replaced by less skilled workers, and ultimately it allows industrial production to be moved to whatever countries have the lowest standard of living and therefore the cheapest labor force. The current stage of the economy, which Marxists like Spitzer term "monopoly capitalism," (meaning the world economy is dominated by a few hundred multi-national corporations) is particularly aggressive in eliminating jobs and/or moving them overseas. The less educated and less skilled are increasingly not needed at all. The capitalist system needs to minimize the threat from this surplus population (in Spitzer's terminology, keep "social junk" from turning into "social dynamite.") The social welfare system may be part of the solution, but since the early 1970s, the ruling class has turned more and more to the criminal justice system as the primary means of control.
Group conflict theory. Where Marx believed that social class is the most basic division in any society, Max Weber saw conflict as having many possible bases--including social class, but also religion, race, ethnicity, and more. Where Marx believed that class inequalities would ultimately be ended by revolution, Weber saw conflict as eternal, although it could take new forms. Group conflict theory derives from Weber's vision. A good example is Joseph Gusfield's book, Symbolic Crusade. Gusfield shows that the social forces behind the Prohibition Amendment were the forces of small-town and rural Protestant America unifying against the encroachment of the alien immigrants, mostly Catholics and Jews. The restrictive immigration laws passed by the U.S. Congress in 1921 and 1924 represent the victory of these same social forces.
When it comes to new laws, or the more aggressive enforcement of old laws, the question for the group conflict theorists is always: Who benefits and who loses? As Chambliss and Seidman put it: "the rule is that discretion at every level... will be so exercised as to bring mainly those who are politically powerless into the purview of the law."
Feminist Theory. One inequality that didn't receive much attention even from the conflict theorists is gender. Theorists sometimes apologized for their lack of attention to girls and women, but there was an assumption that the more dramatic and interesting forms of deviance were primarily the purview of the boys and men. Official crime data confirmed their preponderance both as perpetrators and aggressors. Only since the rise of modern feminism in the late 1960s and early 1970s has that assumption been systematically tested. The first focus of the feminist theorists was domestic violence and rape. The criminal justice system, by largely ignoring male violence against women in intimate relationships, helped to perpetuate a patriarchy that was at least as basic to American society as class or racial domination.
Dialogue 2
Read and translate the following dialogue:
How are Labels applied?
A. Good morning, Mr B. Pleased to meet you.
B. Good morning, Mr A. I’m also very glad to meet you again. If you don’t objectI’d like to resume our conversation about labelling.
A. OK. Let’s get down to business. Labelling involves the application of crude stereotypes by authorities such as the police or teachers. These stereotypes then influence their actions. For example, the police are more likely to stop and interrogate, or arrest and charge working class and ethnic minority youths.
B. As far as I know, labelling theorists question the nature of deviance by asking if there really is a difference between deviants and us, the supposedly normal.
A. Couldn`t put it better myself. However, normality is questioned, and if we cannot describe normality, then how can we define deviance? It is suggested that all people contain elements of both. If this is so, then why do only some of us get labelled?
B. As a matter of fact, social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders.
A. True enough.
B. From this point of view, deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied, deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label.
A. What you are getting at, is that the same act or appearance can be considered and responded to in different ways, that the same act does not always produce the same response, or the same consequences for the perpetrator of the act, am I right?
B. Indeed. The degree to which other people will respond to a given act as deviant varies greatly. Several kinds of variation seem worth mentioning. First of all, there are variations over time. A person believed to have committed a given deviant act may at one time be responded too much more leniently than he would be at some other time.
A. Precisely. The occurrence of drives against various kinds of deviance illustrates this clearly. At various times enforcement officials may decide to make an attack on some particular kind of deviance such as gambling, drug addiction, or homosexuality. It is obviously much more dangerous to engage in one of these activities when a drive is on than at any other time.
B. It is generally accepted that the degree to which an act will be treated as deviant depends also on who commits the act and who feels he has been harmed by it. Rules tend to be applied to some persons more than to others. Studies of juvenile delinquency make the point clearly. Boys from middle class areas do not get as far in the legal process when they are apprehended, as do boys from slum areas. The middle class boy is less likely, when picked up by the police, to be taken to the station, less likely when taken to the station to be booked; and it is extremely unlikely that he will be convicted and sentenced. This variation occurs even though the original infraction of the rule is the same in the two cases.
A. Still, another aspect of labelling is that it may in some cases be applied only when it results in a particular outcome. Some rules are enforced only when they result in certain consequences. The unmarried mother furnishes a clear example. Illicit sexual relations seldom result in severe punishment or social censure for the offenders. If, however, a girl becomes pregnant as a result of such activities the reaction of others is likely to be severe.
B. Thank you for the most interesting conversation. I believe we`ve touched a lot of major points today.
A. Don`t mention it. I am always at your service.
Task 1. Report the dialogue. Use the following reporting verbs:
| · to inform | · to clarify |
| · to stress | · to mention |
| · to conform | · to make it clear |
| · to explain | · to finalize the matter |
Task 2. Work with a partner. Look at the dialogue and discuss what A. and B. say about labelling . Make use of the following verbs: to argue, to explain, to state, to predict, to claim, to suggest.
Task 3. Say it in English.
A .
1. шаблонный стереотип;
2. этническое меньшинство;
3. приклеивание ярлыков (перен.)
4. производить допрос и обвинять;
5. подвергать сомнению понятие «норма»;
6. нарушение правил;
7. устанавливать отклонение;
8. совершать действие;
9. последствие применения;
10. рассматривать и реагировать по-разному;
11. виновный в совершении действия;
12. изменения по времени;
13. относиться более снисходительно;
14. начало общественных кампаний;
15. сотрудники правоохранительных органов;
16. азартные игры и наркозависимость;
17.быть вовлеченным в деятельность;
18. пострадать, понести ущерб от действия;
19. преступность несовершеннолетних;
20. трущобы;
21. признать виновным и приговорить;
22. конкретный результат;
23. служить примером, иллюстрировать;
24. суровое наказание;
25. общественное порицание;
26. преступник;
B .
Определяя тот или иной человеческий поступок, как девиантное поведение, общество приклеивает ярлык. Получается, что ярлыки — это негативные оценки индивида обществом. Их действие двухсторонне: с одной стороны, они удерживают от антиобщественных поступков, но, с другой стороны, при неправильном их применении они могут спровоцировать антисоциальное поведение. Данная теория и теория конфликта в данном случае имеют общую точку зрения о том, что социальное неравенство людей в обществе все-таки влияет на то, какое поведение стоит считать девиантным, а какое — нет.
Теория приклеивания ярлыков ставит акцент на социальном характере процесса, в котором некоторые люди считают уместным приклеивать ярлык другим людям, называя их поведение девиантным. Привлекающим внимание событием оказывается и то, как человек, чье поведение оценено как девиантное, адаптируется к мнениям людей о себе в этой роли, другими словами, как индивид сживается с «ярлыком девианта».
Сторонники теории ярлыков утверждают, что всегда, когда какие-либо члены общества называются «преступниками», «алкоголиками» или «душевнобольными», имеет место процесс приклеивания ярлыков. Он включает в себя лицо или группу, приклеивающих ярлык и лицо или группу, к которым этот ярлык применяется. Ярлык — это негативное определение, фиксирующее место человека или группы на ценностной шкале «хорошо/плохо». Те, кто применяет ярлыки, являются агентами социального контроля, часто приклеивание ярлыков является частью их социальных функций. Приклеивание ярлыков имеет место также и в неформальных кругах, например, когда член семьи или друг называет кого-либо пьяницей или лжецом. Те, кому приклеивают ярлык в этом процессе, являются девиантами. Таким образом, с точки зрения теории ярлыков, девиантом является любой, к кому ярлык девианта успешно применяется.
Task 4. Use Supporting Materials below to continue the dialogue about Labelling Theory. Make use of the underlined helpful phrases from Dialogue 2.
SUPPORTING MATERIALS
Labelling Theory
Instead of looking at why some social groups commit more crime, the labelling theory asks why some people committing some actions come to be defined as deviant, while others do not. Labelling theory is also interested in the effects of labelling on individuals. Labelling theorists note that most people commit crimes at some time in their lives but not everyone becomes defined as a deviant or a criminal. So how does this process of defining a person as deviant work?
Deviant behaviour can be defined as behaviour that differs from the normal, behaviour that incurs public disapproval and behaviour that is usually subject to some form of sanction.
Once someone has been successfully labelled as criminal or deviant, the label attached may become the dominant label or ‘master status’ which is seen as more important than all the other aspects of the person. He or she becomes a ‘hooligan’ or ‘thief’ rather than a father, mother or friend. Each label carries with it prejudices and images and this may lead to others interpreting the behaviour of the labelled person in a particular way. For example, a person who volunteers to stay late at work is usually seen as worthy of praise, but, if a person has been labelled as a thief, people might be suspicious that they will steal something. For some people once a deviant label has been applied this can actually lead to more deviance. This happens when people start acting in the way they have been labelled. Paul Willis examined male youth behaviour in schools and found that those labelled ‘bad’ by staff effectively lived out that label and even revelled in it.
Labelling can also mould the way someone behaves in their lives especially if they cannot shake off that label. There are many in society who view drug taking as something that should not be done because it is medically bad for you, breaks the law and leads an individual down what might become a dark path.
In work completed in 1964, Wilkins examined the labelling process and found that someone labelled a deviant gets cut off from society and lives in a subculture, which further isolates someone from society at large. This person then associates with like-minded others and shields himself/herself away from the one entity that could help – society at large as it offers some form of normality. However, it is society itself that has labelled that person deviant and almost certainly would not be willing to reabsorb that person back into the nor because of his/her deviancy. Therefore that isolation almost certainly pushes that person into criminal activity as the only way to survive.
It is easy to understand why those convicted of child abuse are not welcomed back into society as a whole. Once released from prison they are supervised by MAPPA whose task it is to monitor their movements etc. If they are in a bail hostel they will be housed with people who have committed similar offences. If by any chance the media – be it national or local – find out about the location of one of these hostels there is the chance that the environment these people need to be in to be effectively monitored will be blown. An example of how the public might react to this was seen in Portsmouth when graffiti (‘Pedos Out’) was drawn on the outside of a GP’s surgery that specialised in paediatric care. The protesters mistook ‘paediatric’ for ‘paedophile’. One of the main concerns the police had with ‘Sarah’s Law’ was that it could allow – despite stringent restrictions – a community to learn about the whereabouts of a released child abuser within their community and that community would be unforgiving towards that offender. Prior to ‘Sarah’s Law’ such information was highly restricted and the police felt that it gave them control over an offender. Their fear was that an offender might be driven under the radar if he believes his name is going to be released to allowed concerned individuals – despite legal requirements for him to report to a police station once a week – and that monitoring that offender would therefore become far more difficult because of the labels society has placed on child abusers.
CROSS-CULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
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