Functions of the Participle in the sentence

 

	Active	Passive
Present Participle (Participle 1)	asking	being asked
Past Participle (Participle 2)	asked	-
Perfect Participle	having asked	having been asked

 

The Participle has only two syntactic functions: Attribute and Adverbial Modifier. Let's take a closer look at the functions of Participles highlighted in the table:

 

	attribute	adverbial modifier
asking	The girl asking all these questions, is really curious. (задающая вопросы)	Asking all these questions, she drove him really mad. (задавая все эти вопросы)
being asked	The candidate being asked all these questions, makes a good impression. (которому сейчас задают вопросы)	Being asked so many questions, he felt exhausted. (так как/из-за того, что ему задали столько вопросов)
asked	The questions asked at the press conference were all connected with the policy of the company. (вопросы, заданные на пресс конференции)	If asked about the policy of the company, the representatives reply honestly. (когда/если представителям фирмы задают вопросы)

 

The Perfect Participle, on the other hand, can never be used in the function of attribute. In can only function in a sentence as an adverbial modifier showing the priority of an action to that expressed by the finite verb.

 

	Active	Passive
Present Participle (Participle 1)	asking	being asked
Past Participle (Participle 2)	asked	-
Perfect Participle	having asked	having been asked

 

So, the Perfect Participles (highlighted in the table) can have the following functions:

 

	attribute	adverbial modifier
having asked	-	Having asked all these questions she felt quite satisfied. (задав все эти вопросы)
having be e n asked	-	Having been asked so many questions, he thought he could now be sure they trust him. (так как/потому что ему задали так много вопросов)

 

 

The first conditional

We use the First Conditional to talk about future events that are likely to happen.

If we take Jack, he'll be really pleased.

If you give me some money, I'll pay you back tomorrow.

The 'if' clause can be used with different present forms.

If I go to Moscow again, I'll buy you Matryoshka.

If he's feeling better, he'll come.

If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.

The "future clause" can contain 'going to' or the future perfect as well as 'will'.

If I see him, I'm going to tell him exactly how angry I am.

If we don't get the contract, we'll have wasted a lot of time and money.

The "future clause" can also contain other modal verbs such as 'can' and 'must'.

If you go to New York, you must have the cheesecake in Lindy's.

If he comes, you can get a lift home with him.

Second conditional

The Second Conditional is used to talk about 'impossible' situations.

If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park.

If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity.

If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place.

If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.

Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was'. (Some people think that 'were' is the only 'correct' form but other people think 'was' is equally 'correct' .)

If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one.

If I lived in Japan, I'd have sushi every day.

If they were to enter our market, we'd have big problems.

Note the form 'If I were you' which is often used to give advice.

If I were you, I'd look for a new place to live.

If I were you, I'd go back to school and get more qualifications.

The Second Conditional is also used to talk about 'unlikely' situations.

If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall.

If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes.

If you were in my position, you'd understand.

Note that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a question of the speaker's attitude rather than of facts. Compare these examples. Otto thinks these things are possible, Peter doesn't.

Otto – If I win the lottery, I'll buy a big house. Peter – If I won the lottery, I'd buy a big house.

Otto – If I get promoted, I'll throw a big party. Peter – If I got promoted, I'd throw a big party.

Otto – If my team win the Cup, I'll buy champagne for everybody.

Peter – If my team won the Cup, I'd buy champagne for everybody.

Note that the 'If clause' can contain the past simple or the past continuous.

If I was still working in Brighton, I would commute by train.

If she were coming, she would be here by now.

If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.

Note that the main clause can contain 'would' 'could' or 'might.

If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently.

If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant.

If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.

Also note that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.

 What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here") Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one")

 He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")

Third conditional

We can use the Third Conditional to talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they are in the past and we cannot change what has happened.

If I had worked harder at school, I would have got better grades.

If I had had time, I would have gone to see him. But I didn't have time.

If we had bought that house, we would have had to rebuild the kitchen.

If we had caught the earlier train, we would have got there on time but we were late.

Notice that the main clause can contain 'would', 'could' or 'might.

If I had seen him at the meeting, I would have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I didn't.)

If I had seen him at the meeting, I could have asked him. ( But he wasn't there so it wasn't possible.)

If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have asked him. (But I'm not sure. Perhaps if the opportunity had arisen.)

If I had paid more attention in class, I would have understood the lesson.

Also notice that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.

I'd have done it. ("if you had asked me but you didn't.")

I wouldn't have said that. ("if I'd been there.")

He wouldn't have let him get away with that. ("if he had tried that with me.")

Used to

We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.

I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago.

Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.

I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.

We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.

There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't.

She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off.

I didn't use to like him but now I do.

'Used to do' is different from 'to be used to doing' and 'to get used to doing'

 

To be used to doing

We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual.

I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time.

Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now.

They've always lived in hot countries so they aren't used to the cold weather here.

To get used to doing

We use 'to get used to doing' to talk about the process of something becoming normal for us.

I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it.

She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day.

I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the city.

Asking questions

In grammar, a question is a type of sentence expressed in a form that requires (or appears to require) an answer. Also known as an interrogative sentence, a question is generally distinguished from a sentence that makes a statement, delivers a command, or expresses an exclamation. In term of syntax, a question is usually characterized by inversion of the subject and the first verb in the verb phrase, beginning with an interrogative pronoun or ending with a tag question.

 

General questions

 

The basic rule for asking questions in English is straight forward: Invert the order of the subject and the first auxiliary verb. Most of them start with auxiliary verb (Do? Did? Have? Has? Is? Are? Was? Were? Can? Could? May? etc.) and expect an answer Yes/No:

It is snowing. • Is it snowing?

He can speak German. • Can he speak German?

They have lived here a long time. • Have they lived here a long time?

She will arrive at ten o'clock. • Will she arrive at ten o'clock?

He was driving fast. • Was he driving fast?

You have been smoking. • Have you been smoking?

If there is no auxiliary, use part of the verb 'to do'.

You speak fluent French. • Do you speak fluent French?

She lives in Brussels. • Does she live in Brussels?

They lived in Manchester. • Did they live in Manchester?

 He had an accident. • Did he have an accident?

Most questions with question words are made in the same way:

How often does she use it?

Why don't you come?

Where do you work?

How many did you buy?

What time did you go?

Which one do you like?

Whose car were you driving?

Note who, what and which can be the subject. Compare:

Who is coming to lunch? (who is the subject of the verb)

Who do you want to invite to lunch? (you is the subject of the verb)

What happened? (what is the subject of the verb)

What did you do? (you is the subject of the verb)

Note the position of the prepositions in these questions:

Who did you speak to?

What are you looking at?

Where does he come from?

Asking questions 2

In the section Questions 1, we looked at how to ask direct questions. To make a question, we invert the order of the subject and the first auxiliary verb.

Where is Johnny?

Has he found it yet?

 

If there is no auxiliary, use part of the verb 'to do'.

For example:

What time did he arrive?

How often do you play tennis?

However, when we ask for information, we often say 'Do you know…?' or 'Could you tell me….?' These are indirect questions and more polite. Note that the word order is different.

For example:

Do you know where Johnny is?

Have you any idea if he has found it?

Note that we don’t use do, does or did.

For example:

Could you tell me what time he arrived?

Would you mind telling me how often you play tennis?

Use if or whether when there is no question word.

Has he done it? • Do you know if he has done it?

Is it ready? • Can you tell me if it is ready?

The same changes in word order happen when we report questions. Note that in reported questions, the verb changes to the past:

What are you doing? • He asked me what I was doing.

What have you done about it? • He asked me what I had done about it.

Do you work with Pamela? • He asked me if I worked with Pamela.

Question tags or Disjunctive questions:

We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English. They are not really questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so keep the conversation open.

Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary. If there is no auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and with a negative sentence, make a positive tag.

It's beautiful, isn't it?

He has been, hasn't he?

You can, can't you?

It must be, mustn't it?

You know him, don’t you?

He finished it, didn't he?

He will come, won't he?

It isn't very good, is it?

It hasn't rained, has it?

It can't be, can it?

Jenny doesn't know James, does she?

They didn't leave, did they?

 He won’t do it, will he?

Notice these:

There isn't an ATM here, is there?

Let's have a cup of coffee, shall we?

To reply, use the same auxiliary:

It's beautiful, isn't it? • Yes, it is. I think it's fabulous.

It isn't very good, is it? • No, it isn't. In fact, it's terrible.

Embedded questions

Embedded questions are also called indirect questions. Such questions have affirmative word order, and are used in two situations:

a. polite questions (questions within questions)

Could you tell me where the bus station is?

b. Reported speech:

He asked if I could drive an electric car.

Alternative questions

An alternative question is a question that presents two or more possible answers and presupposes that only one is true:

 

Would you like petrol, gas or electric power automobile?

Suppose

We often use 'suppose' to mean 'imagine' or 'guess'

 

I suppose you'll be meeting Danielle when you go to Paris?

When you weren't there, I supposed you must have been held up.

 I suppose you two know each other?

Notice that 'suppose' is not normally used in the continuous form. We do not usually say 'I am supposing'.

Now I suppose we'll have to do something else.

We're waiting for John and I suppose he must be stuck in traffic.

At this moment I suppose it doesn't matter.

Notice that for 'imagine not' or 'guess not' that we make 'suppose' negative, not the other verb.

 

I don't suppose you know where Mary is?

I don't suppose he'll do anything.

I don't suppose you have a Nokia phone charger here?

When responding to an idea with 'suppose', you can use 'so' to avoid repeating the idea that has already been expressed.

 

Is Susan coming to this meeting? • I suppose so.

Modal verb s
Modal verb	Usage	Example
c an can’t cannot	ability	He can do several things at the same time.
	when something is possible	You can’t leave your car in that parking space.
	permission	You can start now.
	informal requests	Can you do that?
could	past form of "can"	He phoned to say he couldn't come.
	polite requests	Could you help me, please?
	possibility	It could be that he missed the bus.
to be to able to	when something is possible	We are able to solve this problem. We were able to solve this problem. We will be able to solve this problem.
may	possibility	It may wind tomorrow.
	ask or give permission (formal)	May I come in?
might	past form of "may"	He said he might do his project.
	possibility	You might have dropped it in the street.
to be allowed to to be permitted to	ask or give permission	We are allowed to work here. We were permitted to work here.
must	you have to do it	We must obey the law.
	it's very logical or very likely to happen	They left so early, they must be home by now.
must not/ mustn't	you are not allowed to do it	You mustn't smoke in here.
to be to	it can have either a value of futurity, or a value of obligation, or something between the two, supposition	He is to get a new car next week.(futurity) You are to go to London next month.(mild obligation)
needn’t	you don’t have to do it	You needn’t do it now.
shall	future for "I" and "we"	I shall see her tomorrow.
	questions and suggestions for "I" and "we"	Let's go, shall we?
should ought to (you) had better would rather	the right thing to do	He should call the hospital.
	advice	–What should I do? –You should (ought to) stop thinking about it. You had better go there. I would rather stay here.
	what is likely or expected to happen	We should be back by midnight.
will	future action or states (not plans)	Prices will go up next year.
	promises and intentions	It's alright, I'll pick it up.
would	past form of "will"	She told me she would phone.
	imagined situations	What would you do if you were her?
	for polite requests, offers and invitations	– Would you please stand up? – Would you like some juice? – We are meeting with Susann next Sunday, would you like to come along?
	to say what you want to do or have	I would like a piece of cheese.
ought to	the right thing to do	We ought to apologize.

ADJECTIVES

An adjective (abbreviated adj.) is a describing word, the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified.

Some adjectives can be identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:

1. –able/-ible understandable, capable, readable, incredible

2. –al mathematical, functional, influential, chemical

3. –ful beautiful, helpful, harmful

4. –ic artistic, manic, terrific

5. –ive submissive, intuitive, inventive, attractive

6. –less sleeveless, hopeless, groundless, restless

7. –ous gorgeous, dangerous, adventurous, fabulous

Forming adjectives from nouns and verbs:

accident	accidental
danger	dangerous
length	long
star	starry
wind	windy

From verbs:

enjoy	enjoyable
help	helpful
obey	obedient
play	playful
talk	talkative

 

Or even from other adjectives:

comic	comical
correct	corrective
elder	elderly
red	reddish
sick	sickly

 

Examples of forming adjectives:

1. Our house color is a kind of yellow. – We live in a yellowish house.

2. He often acts like a child. – He often acts in a childish way.

3. The event was a big success. – We enjoyed a successful event.

4. We enjoyed the sound of the drum’s rhythm. – We enjoyed the drum’s rhythmic sound.

5. She adopted a dog without a home. – She adopted a homeless dog.

6. Look out, that plant is poison. – Look out for that poisonous plant.

7. It looks like it will rain today. – It looks like we’ll have rainy weather today.

8. She always acts with courtesy. – She always behaves in a courteous manner.

9. Her hair is pretty. – She has the prettiest hair.

10. We go for a walk each day. – We go for a daily walk.

 

As well as serving as modifying words like beautiful and big, adjectives are also used for indicating the position on scale of comparison. The lowest point on the scale is known as the absolute form, the middle point is known as the comparative form, and the highest point is known as the superlative form.

 

The comparative adjective can be formed in two ways:

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
This road is long.	This road is longer than that road.	This is the longest road.
This car is beautiful.	This car is more beautiful.	This car is the most beautiful.

 

Exceptions (irregular forms)

Absolute	Comparative	Superlative
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
little	less	least
much/many	more	most

 

Compound adjectives

A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives are joined together to modify the same noun.

1. Our boss submitted a 9-page document.

2. They adopted a two-year-old cat.

 

Denominal adjectives

Denominal adjectives are adjectives derived from nouns. For example:

1. A mathematical puzzle. (a puzzle based on mathematics);

2. A biological experiment (an experiment in biology);

3. A wooden boat (a boat made of wood).

Prepositions – Time

 

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