Varieties of English: Standard English, local dialects and variants.
Standard English=Queen’s Eng=Received Pronunciation-official lang of GB taught at schools & univer-s, used by press, radio, TV, spoken by edu people. It contracts into local dialects, peculiar to sm districts & having no literary form. SE has gained literary & cultural supremacy of the other dialects & excepted as a proper lang. 3% of the Br speak RP. It’s no longer a prestige accent. Signs of deterioration (lowering) & impair (spoil).
RP is associated with Estuary Eng (Estuary=устье-variation in gr & voc). It’s a mix of RP & Cockney, but it’s used in London & areas around London: Essex, Sussex, Kent, Oxford, Cambridge
Variants-variety of Eng which has a literary form; dialect doesn’t have a literary form.
Variants: Scottish (is based on Southern Eng spoken with Scottish accent) & Irish (Ireland)-both of Gaelic variety going down into Celtic. Gaelic variety is in the west (rural) areas. These 2 variants by writers, old & middle Scottish-by Robert Hanrison, Walter Scott. Scottish Eng-Aye=yes! Wee=little; kilt=Scottish skirt, lad=boy. Irish Eng- Joyce, Synge-writers. @ airy-light hearted, bold-naughty, after=recent past time @ I’m after going to town.
Pidgin Eng=Broken Eng 2 people of different origin who speak Eng. A pidgin lang starts when people who don’t have a common lang try to communicate with each other.
In GB ≈ 50 dialects @ Northern, Southern, Western, Eastern, Midland=5 groups of dialects
Yorkshire-dialect, very strongly pronounced in the North
Cockney & Standard Eng
Fank you Thank you
Who
Ave Have
Dialects are considered to be conservative, they have a lot of old w-s @ tram, car, trolley, girl-were dialect & now they are in standard Eng + wrong grammar
Card sixteen
American English
is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States.
English is the most widely spoken language in the United States and is the common language used by the federal government, considered the de facto language of the country because of its widespread use but not established as the official language of the country, despite being given official status by 32 of the 50 state governments.
While written American English is (in general) standardized across the country, there are several recognizable variations in the spoken language, both in pronunciation and in vernacular vocabulary. New York City English, Southern American English, Western American English.
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Vocabulary
The most noticeable difference between American and British English is vocabulary. There are hundreds of everyday words that are different. For example, Brits call the front of a car the bonnet, while Americans call it the hood.
Americans go on vacation, while Brits go on holidays,orhols.
New Yorkers live in apartments; Londoners live in flats.
Collective nouns
There are a few grammatical differences between the two varieties of English. Let’s start with collective nouns. We use collective nouns to refer to a group of individuals.
In American English, collective nouns are singular. For example, staff refers to a group of employees; band refers to a group of musicians; team refers to a group of athletes. Americans would say, “The band is good.”
But in British English, collective nouns can be singular or plural. You might hear someone from Britain say, “The team are playing tonight” or “The team is playing tonight.”
Auxiliary verbs
Another grammar difference between American and British English relates to auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are verbs that help form a grammatical function. They “help” the main verb by adding information about time, modality and voice.
Let’s look at the auxiliary verb shall. Brits sometimes use shall to express the future.
For example, “I shall go home now.” Americans know what shall means, but rarely use it in conversation. It seems very formal. Americans would probably use “I will go home now.”
In question form, a Brit might say, “Shall we go now?” while an American would probably say, “Should we go now?”
When Americans want to express a lack of obligation, they use the helping verb do with negative not followed by need. “You do not need to come to work today.” Brits drop the helping verb and contract not. “You needn’t come to work today.”
Past tense verbs
You will also find some small differences with past forms of irregular verbs.
The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British English has the option of learnedor learnt. The same rule applies to dreamed anddreamt, burnedandburnt, leanedandleant.
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Americans tend to use the –edending; Brits tend to use the -t ending.
In the past participle form, Americans tend to use the –en ending for some irregular verbs. For example, an American might say, “I have never gotten caught” whereas a Brit would say, “I have never got caught.” Americans use both gotandgotten in the past participle. Brits only use got.
Americans use tag questions, too, but less often than Brits.
Card Seventeen
Ways of studying words.
The main methods of studying words are: lexicographic/definitional, contextual/distributional and psycholinguistic
All the three are complementary and more often than not may serve the purpose to conduct a componential analysis, i.e. presenting a word’ semantic structure. Supplementary methods being that of random selection, quantitative/statistical, etc.
1. dictionaries (mono-; uni-lingual)à lexicographic/ definitional method & thesauruses- books containing w-s & phrases arranged according to their meanings.
2. memory of native speakers, that is linguistic competence of native speakers à psycholinguistic/ transformational
3. context (written or spoken) à contextual (specify the data we obtain from the dictionaries)
4. lexemes “-”à morphology, spelling, pronunciation; “+”à a system of meaning; derivatives, word-combination (collocations)-set combinations + idioms
Circulatory dictionaries: @ fan-1. a great football fan; 2. a fan of; @ dog- 1. about a person in a “-” meaning=stubborn; 2. friend @ a jolly dog; 3. to describe a person’s look
Psycholinguistic method: forms of investigation-interview, questionnaire. As a method in 1953 in USA. W-s are stored in semantic fields in our mind. Psycholing experiment-direct or indirect. Associative experiment – provides extra-ling data & semantic fields & it makes observations:
- how the denotative meaning of the word is revealed @ for деревня-город-gives idea of town but opposite to it.
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- how the object referred to is realized @ деревня-Лужки
-an image which is associated @ деревня-лес, гриб
-how emotive & evaluated components are realized @ война-страх; добрый-хороший
-show the way how the stylistic coloring is brought about @ говорить-болтать
types of reactions/ associations:
1. expressive synonyms (creative people) @ брандахлыст-прощелыга
2. stylistically neutral interpretations (down-to earth; rational people) @ хулиган-нехороший чел-к
3. thematic/ non-imaginative (concrete people) @ змея-шланг, изумруд
4. phonetic association (poetic nature, or being tired) @ ас-пас
Lexis is always grammaticalized. Gr isn’t used without lexis. @ A book on art/ a book about art –lexis+grammar
I think that voc should be taught systematically, recording;
Techniques:
1. w-s are better remembered in oppositions; 2. through translation & definitions; 3. semantic fields
5. pattern displays: @ positive verb побуждения “let’s”-has different complements @ let’s have breakfast, shall we? Let’s get the early train. Let’s go to the bank first
6. cloze procedure – fill in the blanks @ to practice dif w-s, expressions
7. componential analyses. we distinguish a semantic marker –smthing that unites the w-s; then their distinctive features.
informal expressive neutral formal
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