Polysemy. Problems Inherent in the Concept of Polysemy.
In a worktable
Homonymy. Types of homonyms.
Homonymy. Different in meaning, but identical in sound or spelling form
Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:
1. Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical) bat – bat - flying animal (летучая мышь) - cricket bat (бита, back - part of body, away from the front, go to back
2. Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling) flower – flour, sole – soul, rain – reign, bye-by-buy
3. Homographs (the same spelling) tear [iə] – tear [εə, lead [i:] – lead [e]
Homonyms in English are very numerous.
Among the other ways of creating homonyms the following processes must be mentioned:
From the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into historical and etymological. Historical homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy; then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate words. Etymo1ogiсal homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).
Borrowed and native words can coincide in form, thus producing homonyms (as in the above given examples). In other cases homonyms are a result of borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim - "wrong", "an immoral habit" has given the English vice - вада "evil conduct"; the Latin vitis -"spiral" has given the English ''vice" - тиски "apparatus with strong jaws in which things can be hold tightly"; the Latin vice - "instead of", "in place of" will be found in vice - president.
Jargon and slang.
Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's dialect or language. Slang is often to be found in areas of the lexicon that refer to things considered taboo (see euphemism). It is often used to identify with one's peers and, although it may be common among young people, it is used by people of all ages and social groups.
Jargon is terminology which is especially defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group, or event. The philosophe Condillac observed in 1782 that "Every science requires a special language because every science has its own ideas." As a rationalist member of the Enlightenment he continued, "It seems that one ought to begin by composing this language, but people begin by speaking and writing and the language remains to be composed."[1]
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In other words, the term covers the language used by people who work in a particular area or who have a common interest. Much like slang,[2] it can develop as a kind of short-hand, to express ideas that are frequently discussed between members of a group, though it can also be developed deliberately using chosen terms. A standard term may be given a more precise or unique usage among practitioners of a field. In many cases this causes a barrier to communication with those not familiar with the language of the field. As an example, the words RAM, bit, byte, CPU, and hexadecimal are jargon terms related to computing.[2]
Euphemisms and taboo words.
A euphemism (from the Greek words eu - well and pheme - speak) is a word or expression that is used when people want to find a polite or less direct way of talking about difficult or embarrassing topics like death or the bodily functions. Most people, for example, would find it very difficult to say in plain language that they have arranged for their sick old dog to be killed. They would soften the pain by saying: We had Fido put down or We had Fido put to sleep. Many people prefer to call someone plain than ugly, or cuddly rather than fat. As such, euphemisms are an important part of every language, but it seems that English has an ever-growing number of them. The non-native speaker not only has to make sense of the euphemisms he hears, he also has to learn which euphemisms are appropriate in any particular situation. He might be aware that his American friend needs to use the toilet when she asks where the bathroom (or restroom, or comfort station) is, but he is less likely to guess that his English friend has the same need when he says he has to see a man about a dog. He might have learned, for example, that in the family way is a euphemism for pregnant. If he says to his boss, however: Congratulations! I hear your wife is in the family way., he would be using an expression that is too familiar for the circumstances.
aboo words are those that are considered in bad taste by some people or that are better to be avoided because they mention realities that are stark or vulgar. They refer to sex, religion, necessities such as the act of emptying the bladder or the bowels, and so on. Examples: fuck, fornicate, masturbation, prick, cunt, the devil, crap, piss, die, etc.
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The taboo is a social phenomenon; some terms are therefore regarded as taboo by some people, but not, by others. Let us take the weasel as a case in point. We have a lovely animal in principle, but a farmer may think otherwise because if it eats his chicks and his hen's eggs, he will scream blue murder by the sole fact of hearing its name. Extremely religious people find it impure to speak about things in which blood is involved: labour (birth), menstruation, etc.
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