The Concept and Definition of Meaning.
Major differences between British and American English with respect to vocabulary.
This is one of a series of articles about the differences between American English and British English, which, for the purposes of these articles, are defined as follows:
· American English (AmE) is the form of English used in the United States. It includes all English dialects used within the United States.
· British English (BrE) is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. It includes all English dialects used within the United Kingdom.
Written forms of American and British English as found in newspapers and textbooks vary little in their essential features, with only occasional noticeable differences in comparable media[1] (comparing American newspapers with British newspapers, for example). This kind of formal English, particularly written English, is often called 'standard English'.[2][3]
The spoken forms of British English vary considerably, reflecting a long history of dialect development amid isolated populations. Dialects and accents vary not only among the countries in the United Kingdom, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, but also within these individual countries.
There are also differences in the English spoken by different groups of people in any particular region. Received Pronunciation (RP) has traditionally been regarded as proper English; this is also referred to as "BBC English" or "the Queen's English". The BBC and other broadcasters now intentionally use a mix of presenters with a variety of British accents and dialects, and the concept of "proper English" is now far less prevalent.[4]
An unofficial standard for spoken American English has also developed, as a result of mass media and geographic and social mobility, and broadly describes the English typically heard from network newscasters, commonly referred to as non-regional diction, although local newscasters tend toward more parochial forms of speech. [15] Despite this unofficial standard, regional variations of American English have not only persisted but have actually intensified, according to linguist William Labov.[citation needed]
Regional dialects in the United States typically reflect the elements of the language of the main immigrant groups in any particular region of the country, especially in terms of pronunciation and vernacular vocabulary. Scholars have mapped at least four major regional variations of spoken American English: Northern, Southern, Midland, and Western.[5] After the American Civil War, the settlement of the western territories by migrants from the east led to dialect mixing and levelling, so that regional dialects are most strongly differentiated in the eastern parts of the country that were settled earlier. Localized dialects also exist with quite distinct variations, such as in Southern Appalachia and New York.
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British and American English are the reference norms for English as spoken, written, and taught in the rest of the world. For instance the English-speaking members of the Commonwealth often closely follow British English forms while many new American English forms quickly become familiar outside of the United States. Although most dialects of English used in the former British Empire outside of North America are, to various extents, based on British English, most of the countries concerned have developed their own unique dialects, particularly with respect to pronunciation, idioms and vocabulary. Chief among other English dialects are Canadian English, based on the English of United Empire Loyalists who left the 13 Colonies,[6] and Australian English, which rank third and fourth in number of native speakers.[7][8]
Word Meaning (Word as a linguistic sign).
There are many models of the linguistic sign. A classic model is the one by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. According to him, language is made up of signs and every sign has two sides (like a coin or a sheet of paper, both sides of which are inseparable):
the signifier , the "shape" of a word, its phonic component, i.e. the sequence of letters or phonemes e.g. /kæt/
the signified (French signifié), the ideational component, the concept or object that appears in our minds when we hear or read the signifier e.g. a small domesticated feline (The signified is not to be confused with the "referent". The former is a "mental concept", the latter the "actual object" in the world)
Saussure's understanding of sign is called the two-side model of sign
23 . Denotation & Connotation
Denotation is the specific, literal image, idea, concept, or object that a sign refers to.
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Connotation is the figurative cultural assumptions that the image implies or suggests. It involves emotional overtones, subjective interpretation, socio-cultural values, and ideological assumptions.Конотація — сумарне чи тотальне значення слова, як описове, так і емоційне. У лінгвістиці використовується для опису супутнього емоційно-експресивного значення мовної одиниці, яке пов'язане з описовим значенням та яке доповнює його. У філософії та логіці використовується у дещо вужчому значенні, а саме конотацією терміну є набір властивостей, що їх посідають усі об'єкти із розширення терміну. Наприклад, конотацією терміну «хмарочос» є набір ознак, властивих усім будинкам понад певну висоту.
Examples:
Stop Sign
Denotation—Stop (even without words, we recognize the meaning from the shape and color)
Connotation—Risk (accident or ticket)
Health club ad
Denotation—fit person in foreground --> you could look like this
Connotation—fit person in background --> you could pick up a date like this in our club
| example | denotation | connotation | |
| Archie Bunker | character of the 70s sitcom |
bigot, racist, conservatism gone awry, working class, uneducated, unsophisticated | |
| Willie Horton | A convicted rapist who was let out and raped again |
When republicans ran adds with his photo it denoted the democratic governors weakness against crime, but it connoted racial hatred and fear of blacks, stereotyping them as criminals. (SOL, 2nd 7) | |
Words also carry different connotations: strikes vs. disputes, union demands vs. management offers.
Denotation and Connotation are not two separate things/signs. They are two aspects/elements of a sign. All signs carry each function.
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Each function is also connected to cultural forces. Denotation has no natural connection to the thing it signifies. It too is cultrually and histroically created.
Types of Connotation
Connotation is the figurative cultural assumptions that the image implies or suggests. It involves emotional overtones, subjective interpretation, socio-cultural values, and ideological assumptions.
The 4 main types of connotation
1. Stylistic. When association concern the situation in which the word is uttered the social circumstances (formal, familiar…), the social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough…), the type of purpose of communication (poetic, official…) Eg.: horse - neutral, steed – poetic, nag – slang, geegee – baby l-ge.
2. Emotional. Is acquired by the word as a result of its frequent use in context corresponding to emotional situation or cause the R-nt is associated with emotions.
3. Evaluative. Expresses approval\ disapproval.
4. Expressive\ intensifying.
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