Psycholinguistic classification of translation.
Psycholinguistic classification of translation, that takes into consideration the mode of apprehension of the O and creating the T, subdivides translation activity into written and oral translation (or interpretation).
Written translation suggests that the source text is in written form, as is the target text. It is the kind of translation, in which text, that are united in the process of inter-lingual communication (the O and the T), function in the process of translation in fixed forms, and the Translator may resort to them many times. This gives the Translator the opportunity to perceive the passages of the ST more than once, to compare them with the corresponding passages of the TT, to introduce any necessary changes into the TT before the TT is presented to the R, i.e. before the translation process is completed. A classical example of written translation is the translation, when the Translator perceives the O visually in the form of a written text and creates the TT also in the form of a written text.
In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. Oral translation is the translation, when the O and its T function in the process of T in an unfixed form. This predetermines a single perception of the O by the Translator and the impossibility of comparison or correction the T after it is completed. A classical example of oral translation is the translation when the Translator perceives the O in an acoustic form (by ear) and pronounces his translation orally. In oral translation the TT is created either simultaneously with the perception of the O, or after the perception of the O is completed. Correspondingly there are two subtypes of oral translation: simultaneous translation (interpretation) and consecutive translation.
As a result, in written translation the TR can read it while in oral T case he hears it.
Simultaneous interpretation is the kind of oral T, when the Translator, listening to the author’s speech, practically at the same time (with a 2 or 3 seconds’ delay) utters his T. As a rule, the SI is effected with the use of a special radio or telephone-type equipment, in a special cabin, when the interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners.. Due to this device the Translator’s voice does not interfere with the perception of the O.
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There is a kind of SI, called “whispering”, when the Translator is not in a cabin, but is at the side of the TR. He gives his T in a low voice either through earphones and a microphone or without them.
SI is a complicated subtype of OT because it requires of the Translator the ability to perform different speech actions simultaneously: listening in the SL, translating into the TL and speaking in it, synchronizing his speech with the speech of the Author. Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgement on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quick-witted thinker.
Consecutive translation is the OT, where the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes (20-30) or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter's training as are special exercises to develop his memory.
Written and oral forms of perception of the O and creation of the TT are typical of written and oral T correspondingly. But there are also some intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it "at sight". A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his "at sight" translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writer with TR getting the translation in written form.
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These are all, however, modifications of the two main types of translation. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place.
In written and oral translation differentiation a great role is played by the time factor. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. He can use dictionaries and reference books, ask for experts’ advice and so on. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we can expect the best performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical discussions we have usually examples from written translations where the translating process can be observed in all its aspects.
The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes to be content with a lower level of equivalence. Of great importance in OT are: half-automatic skills, the knowledge of set correspondences and cliches, the ability to articulate quickly and distinctly in the TL. Besides, the Translator has to introduce elements of adaptive trans-coding, omit some details of the ST, compress (shorten and abridge) the TT. The necessity to act quickly in short time periods in the process of OT creates a big physical and psychological stress, and the Translator can perform his duties with good quality only during 20-30 minutes. That’s why in SI several interpreters work in each cabin in turn.
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Another difference between WT and OT is in the fact that the Translator deals with various passages of the O. In WT he translates one utterance after another, but he has the whole text before him, and each utterance is its unit. The Translator works on each utterance, relating it with the contents of the whole text. He can look for additional information in the preceding or following parts of the text to be able to make choice, follow the development of the idea, correct connection between separate utterances, and so on. In OT the Translator has to perceive and translate the O by small segments, after they are uttered by the Author, and he has no possibility to turn to other parts of the O in the process of T (except in “sight translation”, where this possibility is also restricted.). In CT the Tr can operate one or several utterances. In SI the Tr works with separate segments of utterances, due to time limits and simultaneity of perception and translation.
WT and OT differ also in the character of connection between the participants of inter-lingual communication. In WT, as a rule, the process is effected in an office, and the Tr has no feedback with communicants. Possible and desirable acquaintance of the Tr with the Ar and the potential TR takes place outside the T process. Inter-personality relations do not play any role. The only object of the Tr’s attention is the ST. Any evaluation of the Tr’s actions and the quality of the T by the communicants can be made only after the whole process of inter-lingual communication is over.
In OI the Tr is in immediate speech (or sometimes also personal) contact with communicants. Feedback is often possible with one or both the participants of inter-lingual communication. He has to perceive oral speech irrespective of its correctness or the manner of speech, and ensure understanding between the speaker and the TRs. What helps to overcome arising difficulties? - Presence of the Tr in creation of the O, the possibility to judge the conditions of communication, to fulfil the information omitted on the basis of the knowledge of the subject and the aim of the talk and the preceding stages of discussion, personal acquaintance with the TRs, their understanding of the question discussed, awareness of their arguments and formulations. Having feedback with the Ar, the Tr has an opportunity to ask, to clear out the idea expressed or the unknown term used. Having feedback with the TRs, the Tr can follow their reaction, their understanding of the T, regulate his or sometimes the Ar’s speech tempo and so on. In a personal contact with the communicants the Tr can use gestures, visual demonstration, additional explanations. The T is often accompanied by elements of adaptive trans-coding. Sometimes the Tr may act as an additional participant of the communication, answering questions and doing favour for one or both the communicants.
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Any speech communication (including also the inter-lingual one) renders information only in one direction: form the S to the R. That’s why the process of translation also goes from the ST to the TT assigned for the TR. The Tr translates from the language of the O into the language of the T. In WT the relation of languages in the process of inter-lingual communication remains usually unchanged, and the Tr usually specializes in translating from one particular language into another. In OT, in conditions of contact with both the communicants, the situation of conversation is possible, when communicants, speaking different languages exchange views, functioning now as Ss, now as TRs. In this case the Tr fulfils the so-called “bilateral translation”, translating in both directions. Though the act of translation is directed to one side, the ST constantly changes, and the Tr must be able to translate from any of the languages, quickly switching from one language into the other.
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