Subordinating conjunctions (that, if, as, while, as if, though)
They join a subordinate clause to a principle clause, or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence, or sometimes they join homogeneous parts.
Eg. Though alone, he was not lost. Peter met Mary while staying at his friend’s place.
The Preposition
The Preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations btw objects and phenomena. It shows the relations btw a noun or a pronoun and other words. They have no grammatical categories.
Usually the preposition in not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.
Eg. I’m going to the store.
The P. may be separated from the word and placed at the end of the sentence or clause. In that case it is stressed.
Eg. I don’t know what you are talking about.
As to their morphological structure prepositions are divided into following groups:
1) Simple (in, on, at, for, with)
2) Derivative (behind, below, across)
3) Compound (inside, outside, within)
4) Composite (because of, in front of, in accordance with)
According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into:
1) P. of place and direction (on, in, below, under, between)
2) P. of time (after, before, at)
3) P. expressing abstract relations (by, with, because of)
Some P are polysemantic and may express different relations
Eg. He had never sensed the struggle for life. (purpose)
She has been waiting for 2 hours. (time)
Syntactical characteristics
P. generally form phrases with nouns/pronouns as the head of the phrase.
Eg. He went there for life.
P. can also form part of an infinitive/gerundial phrase.
Eg. After living there for several years he began to like the place very much.
Some P are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions
Eg. after
If a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had better not fall in love after. (adverb)
He went to bed after they had left. (Conjunction)
She asked after a moment. (Preposition)
The adverb, unlike the Prep. And Conj. serves as part of sentence, eg. after is an adverbial modifier of time.
Вопрос 15. The Emotives (The Particle and the Interjection)
THE PARTICLE
The particle as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:
· Its lexico-grammatical meaning of emphatic specification.
· Its unilateral combinability with words of different classes, groups of words, even clauses.
· Its function of a specifier.
Particles have no grammatical categories, no typical stem-building elements.
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As far as their structure is concerned, they may be simp1e (just, still, yet, even, else), derivative (merely, simply, alone), compound (also).
Very few particles (else, merely, solely) are not horftonymous with other words. Most of them are identical in form with adverbs (exactly, precisely, simply, never, still), adjectives (even, right, just, only), pronouns (all, either), conjunctions (but), articles (the).
As we know, the definitions of the lexico-grammatical meanings of parts of speech are not general enough. With particles it is, probably, more so than elsewhere because they are less uniform.
In most of them the meaning of 'emphatic specification' is quite obvious.
Examples:
Only sixteen hundred talents, Pothius. (Shaw).
Why, man, Ireland was peopled just as England was. (Ib.).
/ never thought of that then. (Ib.).
/ notice that there is but one chair in it. (Ib.).
But there are particles in whose meanings there is as much 'emphatic specification' as there is 'action' in the verb belong or 'substance' in the noun faith. There are, for instance, the connective particles also, too, else, either.
They seem to resemble the conjunction and lexically, but their properties are different. Compare, for instance, the particle too and the conjunctions and, if in the following sentence:
· life is dull, you can be dull too, and no harm is done. (Shaw).
Different lexically, the conjunctions if, and have the same lexico-grammaticai meaning of 'relations between...' in accordance with which each of them shows the relation between two clauses without interfering lexically with their content. The particle too in fact 'specifies' the pronoun you (you too can be dull), but as a condition of that specification it requires, in accordance with its lexical meaning, that the content of the clause, of which the specified word is part, should be similar to the content of the previous clause. Thus it connects the two clauses lexically.
As a rule, the combinability of particles is unilateral and variable. They can specify different classes of words or clauses. Most of them precede the unit they specify, but some
particles follow it, as in the case of too. Here are a few illustrations of the combinability of the particle only.
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By George, if she о nIy knew that two men were talking about her like this! (Shaw).
A sestertius is оnlу w ог th a loaf of bread. (Ib.).
You look only fift у in it. (Ib.).
Is it nothing to you what wicked thing you do if о nIy you do it like a gentleman? (Ib.).
Like most particles not can be used with different classes of words or clauses (not he, not the student, not beautiful, not forty, not yesterday, not to see, not seeing, not when he comes).
THE INTERJECTION
The interjection is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
It expresses "emotions or will without naming them.
It has no grammatical categories, no stem-building elements of its own and practically negative combinability.
It functions as a sentence-word or as a parenthetical element.
Some interjections are homonymous with other words: why, well!, now, here!, there!, come!, dear!, fiddlesticks!, etc. Others are not: hey!, hallo!, ah!, hurrah!, pshaw!, alas!, etc.
Interjections, like other parts of speech, may be simple (hallo!, come!, dear!), derivative (goodness!), compound (fiddlesticks!) and composite (hang it!, dear me!).
Semantically interjections are usually divided into two groups: emotional (oh!, bless us!) and imperative (hush!, come!1).
A. I. Smirnitsky 2 thinks that interjections form a peculiar type of sentence, like that of the response-words yes and no, but differing from it in the distinct emotional colouring.
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