Syntax. System Characteristics.
Syntax is the part of grammar that deals with sentence and the inter-sentence relations between the words and\or clauses constituting sentence. Being abstract in nature (it is mostly concerned with relations and not with forms), syntax often allows a variety of interpretations of one and the same syntactic phenomenon, which explains the difference in approaches and analyses inherent in this branch of Grammar. (Emelyanova)
Syntax: Introduction
· logical syntax (speaks off the logically organized syntactical units).
· psychological syntax (What a nice girl!)
· formal syntax (subject, predicate, object) we describe the form of the sentence
· semantic syntax (the idea (modelity) of the sentence)
· communicative syntax (semantic-grammatic relationship (theme-rheme)
· pragmatic syntax (some political oral speeches) Влияние на массы, что поставить первым, а что последним.
Syntactic Units.
Super syntax (texteme, paragraph (SPU- Super phrasal unity)
Super-text (Internet)
Syntax is divided into phrase sub-level (Word-form (mother's table), Word-group or phrase (on the table), predicative (причастие, герундий) word-group (N+М not-finite (gerund, predicative, participle). It all gives us the idea of the sentence, they don't make up a sentence. Clause (low level) makes up a sentence but it is not independent. (N+V)
NON-COMMINICATIVE UNITS and sentence sub-level (COMMUNICATIVE UNITS).
Sentence (N+V)
Composite sentence. (clause+clause) (proposeme gives the content of the syntactic unit). Compound and composite sentence.
Syntagmatic Relations between the Components of an Utterance.
A linguistic unit enters into syntagmatic relations with other units of the same level it occurs with. Syntagmatic Relations exist at every language level. E.g. in the word-group A PINT OF MILK the word PINT contrasts Syntagmatic Relations with A, OF, MILK; within the word PINT – P, I, N and T are in syntagmatic relations. SR are linear relations, that is why they are manifested in speech. They can be of three different types: coordinate, subordinate and predicative.
Coordinate Syntagmatic Relations exist between the homogeneous linguistic units that are equal in rank, that is, they are the relations of independence: you and me; They were tired but happy.
Subordinate Syntagmatic Relations are the relations of dependence when one linguistic unit depends on the other: teach + er –morphological level; a smart student – word-group level; predicative and subordinate clauses – sentence level.
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Predicative Syntagmatic Relations are the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary predication.
As mentioned above, Syntagmatic Relations may be observed in utterances, which is impossible when we deal with PR. Therefore, PR are identified with ‘language’ while SR are identified with ‘speech.
The sentence. Classification of sentences (structural and communicative).
As is well-known, sentences may be classified on the basis of 2 main principles: communicative and structural.
The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore the primary classification of sentences must be based on the communicative principle.
This principle is formulated in traditional grammar as the ‘purpose of communication’. According to types of communication sentences are divided into declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. Sentences belonging to the several types differ from each other in some grammatical points, too. Interrogative sentences are characterized by a special word order. The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener.
The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative. That is, it urges the listener, in the form of request or command, to perform or not to perform a certain action.
Declarative sentences express a statement which gives the listener or the reader some information about various events, activities or attitudes, thoughts and feelings. Statements form the largest part of monological speech, and the greater part of conversation. A statement may be positive (affirmative) or negative. Grammatically, statements are characterized by the subject-predicate structure with the direct order of words.
From the point of view of their structure sentences can be divided into: two-membered (double-nucleus); one-membered (single-nucleus); complete; incomplete; simple; composite (compound, complex).
Simple sentences. Two-membered sentence contains two principle parts — the subject and the predicate. (Fleurhad established immediate contact with an architect).
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A two-membered sentence can be complete and incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate (Young John could not help smiling). It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. (Where were you yesterday? At the cinema).
One-membered sentence have only one principal part (Dusk — of a summer night).
An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers). The two native woman stole furtive glances at Sarie.
Composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative groups. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses a complicated thought reflecting two or more elementary situational events.
Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it that corresponds to a separate sentence as a part of a contextual sequence.
Composite sentence displays two principal types of the connection of clauses — subordination and coordination.
According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be classed into:
compound sentences (coordinating their clauses),
complex (subordinating their clauses).
A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:
1) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.)
E.g.The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.
2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.
E.g. The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinativety are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, casual, consequental, resultative.
A complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:
1) Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.
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E.g. more and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul.
2) Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.
E.g. I wish you had come earlier.
A subordinate clause may follow, interrupt or precede the principal clause.
According to the grammatical function subordinate clauses can be divided into: subject, predicative, object and adverbial (of time, place, purpose, cause, condition, concession, result, manner, comparison)
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