The Adjective: Semantic and Grammar Characteristics.
The adjective is a word expressing aquality of asubstance.
According to their meaning and grammatical characteristics adjectives fall under two classes: (1) qualitative adjectives, (2) relative adjectives.
1. Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly, not through its relation to another substance, as size, shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualities of general estimation: little, large, high, soft, hard
Relative adjectives denote qualities of a substance through their relation to materials (silken, woollen, wooden), to place (Italian, Asian), to time (monthly, weekly), to some action (preparatory, rotatory).
Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives.
1. Most qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison: big-bigger-the biggest.
2. They have certain typical suffixes, such as ful, less, ous, ent, able, y, ish: careful, careless, dangerous, convenient, comfortable, silvery, watery, whitish, shortish.
3. From most of them adverbs can be formed by the suffix ly: graceful — gracefully
4. Most qualitative adjectives can be used as attributes and predicatives. (How lovely the little river is, with its dark, changing wavelets! (ATTRIBUTES); But you’re nearly as old as I am!(PREDICATIVE)
Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives.
1. Relative adjectives have no degrees of comparison.
2. They do not form adverbs with the suffix ly.
3. They have certain typical suffixes, such as en, an, -ist, ic, ical: wooden, Italian, socialist, synthetic, analytical.
4. Relative adjectives are chiefly used as attributes. (...she was a fair example of the middle American class... (ATTRIBUTE); “Certainly,” answered Hilda, looking kindly into the two earnest faces, and wishing from her heart that she had not spent so much of her monthly allowance for lace and finery.(ATTRIBUTE) ;The morning was windy and sharp. (PREDICATIVE)
The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'attributes (of substances)'. It should be understood that by 'attributes'
we mean different properties of substances, such as their size (large, small), colour (red, blue), position in space (up per, inner), material (wooden, woolen), psychic state of persons {happyv furious)
В читать стр 25-27 там где functions
The Adverb vs Modal Words.
The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
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The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: “He amuses
Winifred»
For a second they stood with hands hard clasped.
As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is ly. There are also some other suffixes: wards, ward; long, wise.)
(3) compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) fast — faster — fastest; hard — harder — hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most. (wisely — more wisely — most wisely)
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison: (well — better — best; badly — worse — worst; much — more — most; little — less — least)
According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);
(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);
(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.);
(4) adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.);
(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);
(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.1
Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions and words of the category of state.
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1. The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability, of the action he speaks about.
2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
(1) words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly, etc.);
(2) words expressing supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc.);
(3) words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily; luckily — unluckily; fortunately — unfortunately).
3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.1Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.
Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wilson)
“Will you allow me to detain you one moment,” said he. “Certainly,”replied the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)
4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and adverbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.
Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English.
Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.
Lamlein rose. “We have fulfilled our obligations,” he said pompously, and yet not quite certainly.(Heym) (ADVERB)
Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy) (MODAL WORD)
Slowly, surely, with the secret inner process that works the destruction of an old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had corroded the comely edifice of his philosophy. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him over the ridge. (Wells) (MODAL WORD)
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