CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
1. Criteria of stability and lack of motivation.
2. General classification of phraseological units.
3. Structural classification.
4. Genetic (etymological) classification.
5. Proverbs.
Criteria of Stability and Lack of Motivation
Phraseological units are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units; the other essential feature of phraseological units is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure.
Unlike components of free word-groups which may vary according to the needs of communication, member-words of phraseological units are always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations. E.g., in a red flower (a free phrase) the adjective red may be substituted by another adjective denoting colour, and the word-group will retain the meaning: "the flower of a certain colour".
In the phraseological unit red tape (бюрократические методы) no such substitution is possible, as a change of the adjective would cause a complete change in the meaning of the group: it would then mean "я tape of a certain colour". It follows that the phraseological unit red tape is semantically non-motivated, i.e. its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components, and that it exists as a ready-made linguistic unit which does not allow any change of its lexical components and its grammatical structure.
Grammatical structure of phraseological units is to a certain degree also stable:
red tape - a phraseological unit;
red tapes - a free word-group;
to go to bed - a phraseological unit;
to go to the bed - a free word-group.
Still the basic criterion is comparative lack of motivation, or idiomaticity of the phraseological units. Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct and figurative meaning.
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General Classification of Phraseological Units
Taking into consideration mainly the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units may be classified into three big groups. This classification was first suggested by Acad. V. V. Vinogradov. These groups are:
- phraseological fusions (сращения),
- phraseological unities (единства),
- phraseological collocations (словосочетания), or habitual collocations.
Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups. The
meaning of the components has no connection at least synchronically with the meaning of the whole group. Idiomaticity is combined with complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion,
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E.g.:to kick the bucket - умирать,
at sixes and sevens - в беспорядке,
to see the elephant — узнать жизнь,
to go for a song - продать за бесценок,
ball and chain - законная жена,
a mare's nest - вздор,
to talk through one's hat•— говорить вздор,
white elephant - обуза, никчемный предмет.
Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated word-groups as their meaning can usually be understood through (deduced from)the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit,
e.g.rto skate on thin ice — рисковать,
to wash one's dirty linen in public - выносить сор из избы,
to turn over a new leaf—начать новую жизнь,
to be in smb's shoes - быть на чьем-либо месте,
as busy as a bee - очень занятый,
as cool as a cucumber - хладнокровный,
green light - зеленая улица.
Phraseological unities are usually marked by a comparatively high degree of stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure. Phraseological unities can have homonymous free phrases, used in direct meanings.
E.g.:to skate on thin ice— to skate on thin ice (to risk);
to wash one's hands off dirt - to wash one's hands off (to withdraw from participance);
to play the first role in the theatre - to play the first role (to dominate).
There must be not less than two notional wordsin metaphorical meanings.
Phraseological collocations are partially motivated but they are made up of words having special lexical valency which is marked by a certain degree of stability in such word-groups. In phraseological collocations variability of components is strictly limited. They differ from phraseological unities by the
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fact that one of the components in them is used in its direct meaning, the other - in indirect meaning, and the meaning of the whole group dominates over the meaning of its components. As figurativeness is expressed only in one component of the phrase it is hardly felt.
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E.g.:to pay a visit, tribute, attention, respect;
to break a promise, a rule, news, silence;
to meet demands, requirement, necessity;
to set free; to set at liberty;
to make money, journey;
to fall ill.
The structure V + N (дополнение) is the largest group of phraseological collocations.
Structural Classification
Phraseological units may be defined as specific word-groups functioning as word-equivalents; they are equivalent to definite classes of words. The part-of-speech meaning of phraseological units is felt as belonging to the word-group as a whole irrespective of the part-of-speech meaning of component words. Comparing a free word-group, e.g. a long day and a phraseological unit, e.g. in the long run, we observe that in the free word-group the noun day and the adjective long preserve the part-of-speech meaning proper to these words taken in isolation. The whole group is viewed as composed of two independent units (A + N). In the phraseological unit in the long run the part-of-speech meaning belongs to the group as a single whole. In the long run is grammatically equivalent to single adverbs, e.g. finally, firstly, etc.
So we distinguish set-expressions that are nominal phrases, functioning like nouns,
e.g.:Jack-of-all-trades - мастер на все руки,
ways and means - способы, средства,
Baker's dosen - чертова дюжина,
a thorn in the flesh - бельмо на глазу,
skeleton in the cupboard - семейная тайна; \
verbal phrases, functioning like verbs:
to take the bull by the horn - действовать решительно,
to know the ropes - знать все ходы и выходы,
to flog a dead horse - попусту тратить время,
to put a finger into every pie - соваться во все дела,
to talk through one's hat - пороть чепуху;
adjectival phrases, functioning like adjectives:
spick and span - как с иголочки,
(as)cool as a cucumber - хладнокровный,
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(as)poor as a church mouse - очень бедный,
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(as) good as gold - золотой (о ребенке);
adverbial phrases, functioning like adverbs;
in a trice — в мгновение ока,
at sixes and sevens — в беспорядке,
before you can say «Jack Robinson» - мгновенно,
by hook or by crook - не мытьем, так катаньем; любыми средствами;
prepositional and conjunctional phrases:
as long as;
as well as;
in spite of;
as soon as;
interj ectional phrases:
well, I never! – кто бы мог подумать (ну и ну!),
by George! - (удивление, сожаление),
like hell! - черта с два,
my foot - держи карман шире,
my aunt! - боже мой! Здравствуйте, я ваша тетя!
my eye and Betty Martin! - вот так так!
So, phraseological units are included into the system of parts of speech.
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