UNIT 2. GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN
Common Geographical Characteristics of the Country (General Survey)
The British Isles is the geographical name that refers to all the islands: Great Britain, Ireland, the Channel Islands (some 5500 smaller islands) and the Isle of Man. Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north-east, north and north-west. It is separated from Europe by the North Sea, the Straits of Dover and the English Channel (32 km wide in the narrowest point). In the west Great Britain is separated from Ireland by the Irish Sea, North Channel and St. George’s Channel. The seas surrounding Great Britain are shallow and rich in fish. The total area of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is about 242,000 sq. km; 500 km across at the widest point, and almost 1,000 km long.
●Relief
The Island of Great Britain is distinctly divided into two parts: mountainous (north and west) and lowlands, sometimes hilly (south and east).The most important mountain territories are located in the north of Scotland; geologically they are the oldest in the world.
These mountain ranges are divided into the Northern Highlands and Southern Uplands. The highest peak is Ben Nevis (1,343 m) – the highest point of the British Isles. In the centre of England there is a mountain range called the Pennines – the backbone of England. The highest point is Cross Fell (893 m). On the northwest side of the Pennines there are the Cumbrian Mountains (not very high) which occupy nearly the whole of Wales, leaving only narrow coastal strips of lowland. The highest peak in North Wales is Snowdon (1085 m).
In the south of the Pennines the Midlands lies, the hilly region of the country. Lowland Britain extends from the south of the river Tyne in the north-east of England to the mouth of the river Exe. It is a rich plain with chalk and limestone hills.
In the Northern Ireland there are the Mourne Mountains (south-east) with Slieve Donard, the highest peak (852 m).
●Climate
The climate in Britain is generally mild due to the North Atlantic Drift, a warm sea current. Average British temperatures do not rise above + 30o C in summer and do not fall below – 10o C in winter. Prevailing winds blow from the west and south-west. Autumn and winter are the wettest seasons in Britain. Britain has 204 rainy days a year with the maximum in Scotland and the minimum in the estuary of the river Thames.
● Rivers and Lakes
British rivers are not very long but they are very deep and navigable mostly for smaller ships, not for ocean-going ships. The longest rivers are the Severn (354 km) and the Thames (346 km). The direction and the character of the rivers are determined by the position of the mountains. Due to the humid climate the water-level is always high. The rivers seldom freeze in winter. The rivers flowing in the eastward direction are longer and more navigable – the Tyne, Tees, Ouse, Aire, Don and Trent. In Scotland the chief rivers are the Clyde, Tay, Forth and Tweed.
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The lakes of the Brittish Isles are too small and remote. The largest of them are Loch Lomond and Loch Ness (famous for its “Loch Ness Monster”) in Scotland. In the north-west England the most famous lakes are the Lake District. The largest is Windmere. Lough Neagh, Britain’s largest fresh-water lake (381 sq. km), is in Northern Ireland.
● Natural Resources
Britain has the largest energy resources in Europe. It is rich in coal and is one of the major world producers of natural gas and oil which have been discovered in the British sector of the North Sea.
Answer the questions:
1. What does the geographical name of the British Isles refer to?
2. What ocean and seas wash the UK?
3. What is the territory of the UK?
4. What channel separates the UK from Europe?
5. What are the main mountain ranges and their highest peaks?
6. What is the longest river in the UK?
7. What is Britain’s largest fresh-water lake?
8. What are average British temperatures?
9. What natural resources are there in the UK?
Division into the Regions. Place-names of the British Isles
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is divided into 4 historically developed regions:
● England, consisting of 46 administrative counties;
● Wales, consisting of 13 administrative counties;
● Scotland, consisting of 33 administrative counties;
● North Ireland (or Ulster), consisting of 6 administrative counties.
● England
| 1. South East Country | 2. Southern Country | 3. West Country |
| 1) Kent | 1) Hampshire | 1) Wiltshire |
| 2) East Sussex | 2) Dorset | 2) Avon |
| 3) West Sussex | 3) Isle of White | 3) Somerset |
| 4) Surrey | 4) Devon | |
| 5) Cornwall | ||
| 6) Isle of Scilly |
| 4. London | 5. Thames and Chilterns | 6. East Anglia |
| 1) Hertfordshire | 1) Essex | |
| 2) Bedfordshire | 2) Suffolk | |
| 3) Oxfordshire | 3) Cambridgeshire | |
| 4) Berkshire | 4) Norfolk |
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| 7. Heart of England | 8. East Midland | 9. Yorkshire and Humberside |
| 1) Gloucestershire | 1) Lincolnshire | 1) West Yorkshire |
| 2) Hereford and Worcester | 2) Leicestershire | 2) Humberside |
| 3) Warwickshire | 3) Derbyshire | 3) North Yorkshire |
| 4) Shropshire (Salop) | 4) Nottinghamshire | |
| 5) Staffordshire | 5) South Yorkshire | |
| 6) West Midland | ||
| 7) Northamptonskill |
| 10. North West | 11. Cumbria | 12. Northumbria |
| 1) Cheshire | 1) Cumbria | 1) Durham |
| 2) Greater Manchester | 2) Isle of Man | 2) Tyne and Wear |
| 3) Merseyside | 3) Northumberland | |
| 4) Lancashire | 4) Cleveland |
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| ●Wales | ● Scotland (12 regions) | ● Northern Ireland |
| 1. South Wales | 1. Borders | 1) Down |
| 1) South Glamorgan 2) Mid Glamorgan | 2. Dumfries and Galloway | 2) Armagh 3) Antrim |
| 3) West Glamorgan | 3. Strathclyde | 4) Londonderry |
| 4) Gwent | 4. Lothian (Edinburgh) | 5) Fermanagh |
| 5. Central | 6) Tyrone | |
| 2. Mid Wales | 6. Tayside | |
| 1) Dyfed | 7. Fife | |
| 2) Powys | 8. Grampian | |
| 9. Highland | ||
| 3. North Wales | 10. Western Islands | |
| 1) Clwyd | 11. Orkney Islands | |
| 2) Gwynedd | 12. Shetland Islands |
For the purpose of simplification Britain can be divided into 8 great industrial regions:
1. The Midland Area (around Birmingham and Wolverhampton);
2. Yorkshire (Leeds, Sheffield);
3. Lancashire (Liverpool, Manchester);
4. Durham and Northumberland;
5. Wales (South Wales);
6. Scotland (from Glasgow to Edinburgh);
7. Northern Ireland;
8. The London Area.
The major cities are: London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool, Sheffield, Leeds, Bristol, Manchester, Edinburgh.
2.3.The Main Port-Cities of the Country
London lies 40 miles (64 km) from the mouth of the River Thames, it covers 625 sq. miles. It was founded by the Romans in the I A.D. as a convenient administrative and communications centre and a port for trade with Continental Europe. Greenwich is a borough of London well known over the world. Greenwich Mean Time (GMN) takes its name from the Old Greenwich Observatory which is now part of the National Maritime Museum. Longitude is calculated from the Greenwich meridian (0 longitude) – the Prime Meridian.
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London is a royal city. For a thousand years it has been a principal residence of British Monarchs, as well as the centre of business and government, it is rich in historic buildings and treasures from all periods. The architecture of London streets now is a mixture of new and old.
London is divided into the West End and the East End. The West End is famous for its royal, cultural and architectural landmarks, for entertainment and shopping opportunities. The East End includes all the main dock areas and is heavily industrialized. The City of London today is the financial powerhouse of London. Bankers, brokers, buyers and traders conduct their daily business within its boundaries. The Bank of England in Threadneedle Street is the National bank which holds the country’s gold reserves.
Many Kent and Sussex ports grew prosperous on trade. Portsmouth, Hampshire was a vital naval port with its noisy and dangerous nightlife; now it is interested for those who want to know more about English Naval history: The Royal Naval Museum, the D–Day Museum, the Ch.Dickens Museum.
Hastings, East Sussex is well known in British History as the site of battle (1066) between the army of the duke William (the Conqueror) and the Saxons, led by King Harold II. Now it is a modern seaside resort, one of the first Cinque Ports. The Channel ports are Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Sandwich, Dover.
Dover is the leading port for cross Channel travel and now the terminal for the Channel Tunnel. It is a gateway to London.
Bristol, the city at the mouth of the Avon, became the main British port for transatlantic trade; it started the era of the ocean-going steam liners. The city flourished as a major center of trading wine, tobacco and, in the 17th c., slaves.
Dartmouth was important as a port and it has the Royal Naval College where British naval officers have trained since 1905.
Plymouth is the tiny port from which sailed on their first voyages Sir Francis Drake (1540 – 1596, who was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. He introduced tobacco and potatoes to England), the Pilgrims Fathers in 1620, James Cook (18 c.) and Darwin (19 c.). It is a big city now.
Liverpool lies 3 km inland from the Irish Sea on the river Mersey in the county of Lanchashire. It is connected to Manchester via 40 km long Manchester Ship Canal. The Port’s financial sector and tourism are a major contribution to the local economy. It is one of the world’s few cities where cruise vessels can berth in the city center.
It was founded in 1207 by King John. In 199 the first slave ship sailed from the port to Africa. In 171 the first commercial dock was built. By the end of the 18 th c. this port dominated more than 80 % of Britain’s slave trade and over 40 % of Europe. In 1830 Manchester and Liverpool became the first cities to be linked by rail. In 1886 Liverpool was called “New York of Europe” for its wealth.
The port handles more than 4.5 mln tons of dry bulk cargo per year (coal, steel, metal); general cargo (steel products, fertilizers, food); receives crude oil; imports forest products; makes daily trips from Liverpool to Dublin and Belfast by 8 roll-on/roll-off ferry services. It is one of the busiest container ports in Britain and Northern Europe.
The Mersey Docks and Harbour Company (MHDC) is the port authority which provides pilotage; navigational buoys, lights, channels, mooring, tidal and hydrographic information to port users.
The most popular attractions: the Beatles Story, the Maritime Museum, the International Slavery Museum; architecture and color of the houses in Castle Street unchanged from the early times. The Mersey Ferry offers several daily cruises.
York is the 2nd city in numbers of visitors, the city where Roman and Viking relics exist side by side. The glory of York is the minster. The word “minster” means a church served by monks, but priests always served at York. York Minster is England’s largest medieval church.
Newcastle upon Tyne was founded in 1080 by the eldest son of William the Conqueror. It is known as the world’s foremost shipyard.
Cardiff is the largest city of Wales; three rivers (the Taff, the Ely, the Remney) flow through it into the Bristol Channel. Cardiff is home for the National Museum of Wales, the Welsh Industrial Maritime Museum etc.
Swansea is the 2nd city of Wales. Swansea Bay leads to the Mumbles – a popular water-sports center.
Glasgow became the cradle of Scotland’s Industrial Revolution fuelled by James Watt‘s development of the steam engine in the 1840s. Glasgow created a cotton industry and launched the world’s greatest ships.
Aberdeen is the 3rd largest city of Scotland and Europe’s offshore oil capital; one of Britain’s most important fishing ports.
Royal Deeside is inland from Aberdeen, on the river Dee, one of the world’s prolific salmon rivers.
Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland, or Ulster, the center of Protestant power, a birthplace of legendary Titanic.
Londonderry is the 2nd city in Ulster, has a Navy base and port.
Answer the questions:
1. What can you say about the regions of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland?
2. Enumerate the main industrial regions in Britain.
3. What cities and ports do you know in Great Britain?
Task 1. Prepare the report about one of the large cities in Great Britain.
UNIT 3. BRITISH HISTORY
Early Britain (3000 BC – 1066)
Britain is an island, and Britain’s history and its strong national sense have been shaped by the sea. The main events in Early Britain are connected with the following:
● the Iberian tribes (3000 BC – 700 BC)
● the Celts (700 BC – 55 BC)
● the Roman Invasion (55 BC – 47 AD)
● the Anglo-Saxons (449 – 793)
● the Scandinavian Raids (793 – 1042).
The first settlers on the British Isles were the Iberians who probably came from the Iberian (Spanish) Peninsula in 3000 (the 3rd millenium) BC. They were small, dark and long-headed people (may be the forefathers of dark-haired inhabitants of Wales and Cornwall). They brought their metal working skills and the first real civilization to Britain. They settled in western part of Britain and Ireland. They built wooden buildings and stone circles. These “henges” (as they were called) were centers of religious, political and economic power. Stonehenge (in Wiltshire) is the most famous of them.
Around 700 BC the Celts began to arrive from Central Europe. They were technically more advanced. They knew how to work with iron and used more advanced farming methods. The Celtic tribes (the Gaels, the Picts, the Scots, the Brythons, the Belgic tribes) – they were tall, had fair or red hair and blue eyes; wore long flowing moustaches but no beards – were ruled over by priests, or Druids – they had white long beards. During the Celtic period women had more independence. When the Romans invaded Britain two of the largest tribes were ruled by women. British history of that time contains information on Boudicca’s revolt. After death of her husband she became the queen of her tribe and in 61 AD she led her tribes against the Romans, she nearly drove them from Britain, destroyed London but the revolt was suppressed and she committed suicide.
In 55 BC the Romans under Julius Caesar first landed in Britain. In 43 AD permanent conquest of Britain began under the emperor Claudius. In this period Britain became a Roman province. The Romans ruled Britain for almost four hundred years up to the early 5th c. and left behind 3 important things:
● a system of roads (which became main roads of modern Britain, 6 of these roads met in London – a capital city of that time);
● towns (20 large and 100 smaller; at first they were army camps);
● the seeds of Christianity.
The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain. They established a Roman-British culture across the southern part of Britain, from the river Humber to the river Severn. They could not conquer “Caledonia” (Scotland).
In the 5th c. Britain was invaded by the Anglo-Saxons (the Angles, the Saxons, the Jutes). They came from Northern Europe. They established 7 kingdoms: Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria. Kings of Wessex became kings of England. Winchester was a capital at that period of time. The Anglo-Saxons were pagans. In 597 Pope Gregory I sent a mission to convert England into Christianity. England became Christian very quickly. In the 7th c. Christianity spread all over the country.
Scandinavian raids began in the end of the 8th c. Scandinavian Vikings were stopped by King Alfred of Wessex. They concluded the Wedmore Treaty in 876 and divided the territory into Anglo-Saxons lands and Danelaw lands. Alfred the Great joined all kingdoms into one. He is the only monarch to be given such a title. He was a wise ruler, a great warrior and a scholar. He translated the Latin texts, made his own compositions, established a system of Laws based on old Anglo-Saxon customs. He started writing the “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle”.
Answer the questions:
1. With what main events is Early Britain connected?
2. What tribes occupied Great Britain?
3. How many kingdoms were established?
4. Who stopped Scandinavian raids?
Medieval Britain
The Norman conquest of England began in 1066, after Edward the Confessor died. There were three claimants to the throne. The Battle of Hastings (on October, 14) was one of the decisive battles in English history and it brought victory to William, who became the English king – William I (1066-1087), known as “the Conqueror”. England was waste (because the Norman army was a true army of occupation – they burnt villages, destroyed and killed) and fell under the Norman rule.
William introduced in England a strict feudal system. He confiscatedthe estates of the Anglo-Saxon nobility and distributed them among the Norman barons. All posts in the church were given to persons of French culture. Frenchmen (merchants, soldiers, and teachers) arrived in England in great numbers. The peasants were the English-speaking Saxons. The lords and barons were the French-speaking Normans. This was the beginning of the English class system.
The power of barons gradually increased. They, together with the Church, forced King John to sign a document known as “Magna Carta”, or the Great Charter in 1215. It cancelled the right of the King to control the personal property and the personal liberty of all freemen. It is considered to be a foundation of the British legal and parliamentary system.
The 14th c. was ruinous for Britain because of:
1) the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453);
2) the plagues (1348, known as the Black Death) killed 1/3 of the British population;
3) the peasants’ revolts (Wat Tyler);
4) religious movements;
5) struggle between the king and lords; French barons and Anglo-Saxons lords (till the 14th c.).
During the reign of Henry III, Parliament (1264) was born. In 1295, during the reign of Edward I, the House of Commons appeared.
Answer the questions:
1. What event was the most significant in Medieval Britain?
2. What is the essence of a document known as “Magna Carta”, or the Great Charter?
3. When did the House of Commons appear?
3.3. Britain in the 15th – early 18th cc.
In the period from the 15th c. till early 18th c. there were the following events:
● the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) which marked the decay of feudalism and the birth of a new social order. This name is given to the struggle for power between the two factions of the royal family – the houses of York and Lancaster (the white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster). In this struggle the Lancastrian House gained victory. Henry Tudor became Henry VII.
● Introduction of Printing. Printing was invented in Mayence (Germany) by Johann Gutenberg in 1438. The Englishman William Caxton (1422-1491) returned to England and in 1476 he founded the first printing office in London. The first book to be printed in England appeared in 1477. Caxton’s printing press was an important technological revolution. Printing began to standardize spelling and grammar.
● The power of the English monarchy increased during the Tudor rule (1485-1603). Henry VII – the 1st of the Tudor dynasty built the foundation of a wealthy nation and a powerful monarchy, created the fleet of merchant ships and the Royal Navy.
His son, Henry VIII, consolidated his power. The Reformation took place during his reign. He was declared the Supreme Head of the Church of England (in 1534) by Parliament. The Act of Supremacy swept away the power of the Roman Church in England and it became a Protestant country.
Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII, was an outstanding ruler. Her reign is called the Golden Age of English History. In 1588 England defeated the powerful navy of Spain (the Invincible Armada). The discovery of America placed Britain at the centre of the world’s trading routes. Great trading companies (like the East India Company) were established. This age is also called the English Renascence. It was one of the greatest artistic periods in England’s history. There were important developments in portrait painting, music, science. This period gave a lot of warriors, explorers, philosophers, poets, writers and actors. After the death of Elizabeth I, 1603, James IV of Scotland became James I of England and Scotland, the first Stuart king.
● The Stuart kings (James I and Charles I) ignored Parliament and ruled without it several years. The conflict led to the Civil War (1642). The Parliamentary army, led by Oliver Cromwell, defeated the King’s army. Charles I was executed in 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a republic, known as the Commonwealth was set up. The monarchy was restored in 1660 under the rule of Charles II. The “Glories revolution” called bloodless took place in 1688. Parliament invited the Protestant ruler of Netherland William of Orange and Mary (Jame’s II daughter) to take the Crown. The Parliament adopted the Bill of Rights (1689) which assured the ascendency of Parliamentary power over the royal power. Britain became a parliamentary monarchy in which political supremacy belonged to Parliament.
Answer the questions:
1. What events marked the decay of feudalism and the birth of a new social order from the 15th c. till early 18th c.?
2. Who are the most famous monarchs of the Tudor dynasty and what are they famous for?
3.4. Britain in the 18th c. till our days
Important political changes took place in British history in the 18th c., the century of the Enlightment.
● The Scottish Parliament joined with the English and Welsh Parliaments in Westminster in London in 1707. Within Parliament two groups were formed: the Whigs, who supported the protestant values and believed in government by monarch and aristocracy together; the Tories, who had the idea of monarchy and the importance of the Anglican Church. It is the beginning of the party system in Britain.
● The modern system of annual budget, approved by Parliament, was established; the appointment of “Prime”. The power of the King was limited by the Constitution. The King was dependent on Parliament for his financial income and for his army.
● The country became wealthy through trade. This wealth made possible both an agricultural and industrial revolutions, which turned Britain into the most advanced economy in the world. London came to dominate as a business and trading centre.
The 19th c. was the time when the British Empire was formed. The sections of this empire: Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Africa (large parts through slave trading), a lot of islands (position of trading routes).
● The British Empire covered ¼ (one quarter) of the world’s population.
● Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901 (63 years on the throne). Victoria was the first monarch to use the title Empress of India. She was the last monarch of the House of Hanover; her successor belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The Royal family changed its surname in 1917 to Windsor (after the town and castle). It rules Britain nowadays. Britain reached the height of its commercial, political and economic leadership.
● New industries were developed, new factories were built. Britain’s products were exported all over the world (it became known “the workshop of the world”). Life of the working people was terrible and dangerous. Dickens protested against the horrors of life. In 1893 the Labour Party was founded which gave the proletariat a greater voice in Parliament.
The first decade of the 20th c. was the beginning of decline in the power of the British Empire:
● Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand became dominions with their constitutions.
● Germany was becoming the dominant economic power in Europe. Like the USA, it produced more steel than Britain, built strong industries and a strong navy.
● The rivalry between the Great European powers led to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
● The war was followed by a period of depression in economy (1930 to 1933 – the crisis affected Britain most severely, 3 mln people were unemployed).
● Britain declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. In August 1940 Hitler ordered to begin massive air-raids on British towns (London, Birmingham, Liverpool and Glasgow were greatly damaged). The war had cost Britain a quarter (1/4) of its national wealth. In 1940 King George VI asked Churchill to form a new government. At the age of 66, Churchill became Prime Minister of Great Britain.
● The Labour government came to power in 1945 and nationalized the railways, mines, civil aviation, shipbuilding, gas, electricity industries; adopted a new system of social security; introduced pensions, established free medical aid.
● The Conservative government returned in 1951, headed by Winston Churchill. It was a period of massive growth in the private sector. The wages were frozen, the prices continued to grow. The Labour Party won the 1964 election.
● 70-80 years. 2 problems: 1) loss of influence in world affairs and economy; 2) the arrival of immigrants.
In May 1979 Margaret Thatcher, “the Iron Lady”, the leader of the Conservative Party became Prime Minister.
● The UK’s current monarch and head of the state is Queen Elizabeth II who was crowned in 1953. She has reigned longer than any other monarch.
Answer the questions:
1. Why country became wealthy the century of the Enlightment?
2. When and how was the British Empire formed?
3. What events characterize the first decade of the 20th c. in GB?
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