Text as the sphere of functional manifestation of the sentence.
In oral text, dictemes are delimited intonationally: pauses between dictemes are longer than pauses between sentences within the same cumuleme.
In written text, the dicteme is normally represented by a paragraph, but it must be noted that the two units are not identical. Theparagraph is a unit of written speechdelimited by a new (indented) line at the beginning and an incomplete line at the close; it is a purely literary-compositional device. A paragraph can include more than one dicteme, or it may divide one dicteme into parts, for example, for the introduction of utterances in a dialogue or for the introduction of separate points in enumerations. Still, though the paragraph is not a strictly syntactic device, the borderlines between paragraphs are basically the same as the borderlines between dictemes. Both multidicteme paragraphs and one-sentence paragraphs are stylistically marked features of the text.
3. Give example of cumulative phrase. off the point, definitely
№32 ЕМТИХАН БИЛЕТІ /
ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ
1. Grammatically relevant semantic subdivision of adverbs: qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial adverbs. Their subdivision into notional and functional (pronominal) adverbs.
Traditionally, adverbs are divided on the basis of their general semantics into qualitative, quantitative, and circumstantial. The qualitative adverbs denote the inherent qualities of actions and other qualities; most of them are derived from qualitative adjectives, e.g.: bitterly, hard, beautifully, well, etc. The quantitativeadverbs show quantity measure; genuine quantitative adverbs are usually derived from numerals, e.g.: twice, three times, tenfold, manifold, etc. The circumstantial adverbs denote mainly the circumstances of time and place (they can also be defined as “orientative”), e.g.: today, here, when, far, ashore, abroad, often, etc.
2. Intermediary phenomena between the sentence and the supra-sentential construction; parcellation and its stylistic load.
As was mentioned earlier, in Unit 1, a cumuleme (a cumulative supra-sentential construction) correlates with a separate sentence which is placed in the text in a topically significant position. Thus, the general elementary unit-segment of text built up by either a cumuleme or by a single sentence can be defined as a “dicteme” (from Latin ‘dicto’ ‘I speak’).
There are some syntactic constructions intermediary between the sentence and the sequence of sentences. The first one is known as parcellation: in a parcellated construction, the two parts are separated by a finalizing sentence tone in oral speech and by a full stop in written speech, but they relate to each other as parts of one and the same sentence, e.g.: I am always shy. With you. Parcellation can be treated as transposition of a sentence into a cumuleme; it adds some topical significance to the part parcellated. The second intermediary phenomenon is the result of transposing a cumuleme into a sentence when two or more semantically independent sentences are forced into one. This is characteristic of a casual manner of speech or, on the other hand, for prolonged literary passages; in written speech such constructions usually include semi-final punctuation marks, such as, for example, a semi-colon or brackets (see Unit 25; inner cumulation).
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Give example of exclamatory sentences.
She is a nice little girl – What a nice little girl she is!; Open the door. – For God’s sake, open the door!; Why are you late? – Why on earth are you late?!
№33 ЕМТИХАН БИЛЕТІ /
ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ
1. The three constituent parts (subsystems) of the language: phonological (phonetic), lexical and grammatical systems.
As a system, language is subdivided into three basic subsystems, each of which is a system in its own turn. They are the phonetical (phonological), lexical and grammatical systems. The phonetical system includes the material units of which language is made up: sounds, phonemes, different intonation models, and accent models. The phonetical system of language is studied by a separate branch of linguistics called phonology. The lexical system includes all the nominative (naming) means of language – words and stable word-combinations. The lexical system is studied by lexicology. The grammatical system includes the rules and regularities of using lingual units in the construction of utterances in the process of human communication. The grammatical system is described by grammar as a branch of linguistics.
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The study of grammar may be either practical (practical grammar), which describes grammar as a set of rules and regulations to follow, or theoretical (theoretical grammar), aiming at the explanation of how and why the grammatical system works.
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