Grammar as a branch of linguistics. Theoretical and practical grammar.
The study of grammar may be either practical (practical grammar), which describes grammar as a set of rules and regulations to follow, or theoretical (theoretical grammar), aiming at the explanation of how and why the grammatical system works.
2. The problem of bilateral dominational connections in predicative combinations of words (of a subject and a predicate). The classification of phrases according to part-of-speech, functional and positional criteria.
3. What part of speech the underlined words belong to?
4. a. It is early spring.
5. b. It is early spring.
6. c. It is early spring.
7. d. He stayed long with us
8. .
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The definition of the morpheme. The word and the morpheme, their correlation in the level structure of the language.
the morpheme is the elementary meaningful lingual unit built up from phonemes and used to make words. It has meaning, but its meaning is abstract, significative, not concrete, or nominative, as is that of the word. Morphemes constitute the words; they do not exist outside the words. Studying the morpheme we actually study the word: its inner structure, its functions, and the ways it enters speech.
Stating the differences between the word and the morpheme, we have to admit that the correlation between the word and the morpheme is problematic. The borderlines between the morpheme and the word are by no means rigid and there is a set of intermediary units (half-words - half-morphemes), which form an area of transitions (a continuum) between the word and the morpheme as the polar phenomena. This includes the so-called “morpheme-like” functional, or auxiliary words, for example, auxiliary verbs and adverbs, articles, particles, prepositions and conjunctions: they are realized as isolated, separate units (their separateness being fixed in written practice) but perform various grammatical functions; in other words, they function like morphemes and are dependent semantically to a greater or lesser extent. Cf..: Jack’s, a boy, have done.
2. The sentence as the main unit of syntax. The sentence as a communicative unit.
3. Give a morphological analysis of the underlined words in the sentence: The moon was rising, blood-red. The boy was looking at her thinking that he had neverseen so red moon.
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1. Traditional classification of morphemes: positional and functional (semantic) criteria. Roots and affixes.
In traditional grammar, the study of the morphemic structure of the word is based on two criteria: the positional criterion - the location of the morphemes with regard to each other, and the semantic (or functional) criterion - the contribution of the morphemes to the general meaning of the word.
According to these criteria morphemes are divided into root-morphemes (roots) and affixal morphemes (affixes). Roots express the concrete, “material” part of the meaning of the word and constitute its central part. Affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word: they specify, or transform the meaning of the root. Affixal specification may be of two kinds: of lexical or grammatical character. So, according to the semantic criterion affixes are further subdivided into lexical, or word-building (derivational) affixes, which together with the root constitute the stem of the word, and grammatical, or word-changing affixes, expressing different morphological categories, such as number, case, tense and others. With the help of lexical affixes new words are derived, or built; with the help of grammatical affixes the form of the word is changed.
2. Predication as a fundamental distinguishing feature of the sentence. Nominative aspect of the sentence in correlation with its predicative aspect.
3. Give examples of adjective in superlative degree. a. Yesterday I was very busy. b. They never quarrel. c. He speaks English well enough. d. I can't understand why he is late.
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Grammatical relevance of derivational affixes; lexical (word-building) paradigms.The peculiarities of grammatical suffixes (inflexions) in English.
Lexical affixes are primarily studied by lexicology with regard to the meaning which they contribute to the general meaning of the whole word. In grammar word-building suffixes are studied as the formal marks of the words belonging to different parts of speech; they form lexical (word-building, derivational) paradigms of words united by a common root, cf.:
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to decide - decision - decisive - decisively
to incise - incision - incisive - incisively
Being the formal marks of words of different parts of speech, word-building suffixes are also grammatically relevant. But grammar study is primarily concerned with grammatical, word-changing, or functional affixes, because they change the word according to its grammatical categories and serve to insert the word into an utterance. The morphemic structure of the word can be analyzed in a linear way; for example, in the following way: underestimates - W= {[Pr +(R+L)]+Gr}, where W denotes the word, R the root, L the lexical suffix, Pr the prefix, and Gr the grammatical suffix.
In addition, the derivational history of the word can be hierarchically demonstrated as the so-called “tree of immediate constituents”; such analysis is called “IC-analysis”, IC standing for the “immediate constituents”. E.g.:
2. Predication as a fundamental distinguishing feature of the sentence. Predication as syntactic modality. The means of expressing predication.
3. Write out pronouns and underline personal pronoun. a. Hi, everybody. What do you guys plan for the weekend? b. Where are the books? – They are on the shelf. c. I ask nothing for myself. d. We know everything about each other. e. Do you see that house over the river? f. Who are you waiting for? g. There was somebody who wanted you. h. The question is which book is yours.
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1. Distributional classification of morphemes: full and empty (zero morphemes), free and bound, overt and covert, segmental and supra-segmental, additive and replacive, continuous and discontinuous morphemes
Besides these traditional types of morphemes, in Descriptive Linguistics distributional morpheme types are distinguished; they immediately correlate with each other in the following pairs. Free morphemes, which can build up words by themselves, are opposed to bound morphemes, used only as parts of words; e.g.: in the word ‘hands’ hand- is a free morpheme and -s is a bound morpheme. Overt and covert morphemes are opposed to each other: the latter shows the meaningful absence of a morpheme distinguished in the opposition of grammatical forms in paradigms; it is also known as the “zero morpheme”, e.g.: in the number paradigm of the noun, hand – hands, the plural is built with the help of an overt morpheme, hand-s, while the singular - with the help of a zero or covert morpheme, handØ. Full or meaningful morphemes are opposed to empty morphemes, which have no meaning and are left after singling out the meaningful morphemes; some of them used to have a certain meaning, but lost it in the course of historical development, e.g.: in the word ‘children’ child- is the root of the word, bearing the core of the meaning, -en is the suffix of the plural, while -r- is an empty morpheme, having no meaning at all, the remnant of an old morphological form. Segmental morphemes, consisting of phonemes, are opposed to supra- segmental morphemes, which leave the phonemic content of the word unchanged, but the meaning of the word is specified with the help of various supra-segmental lingual units, e.g.: `convert (a noun) - con`vert (a verb). Additive morphemes, which are freely combined in a word, e.g.: look+ed , small+er, are opposed to replacive morphemes, or root morphemes, which replace each other in paradigms, e.g.: sing -sang – sung. Continuous morphemes, combined with each other in the same word, e.g.: worked, are opposed to discontinuous morphemes, which consist of two components used jointly to build the analytical forms of the words, e.g.: have worked, is working.
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2. Intonational arrangement of the sentence. The sentence in the system of language: the notion of sentence pattern (its generalized syntactic model).
3. The word antidisestablishmentarianism is the longest word in English language. Give morphemic analysis of word.
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