GRAMMAR: Subjunctive Mood. Сослагательное наклоление
В английском языке существуют три наклонения:
1) Повелительное наклонение (the Imperative Mood), которое выражает побуждение к действию (просьбу или приказание).
Watch your step!
Don’t be so naughty!
2) Изъявительное наклонение (the Indicative Mood), которое выражает реальность действий в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем времени.
I am doing my homework now.
I go to the university every day.
I was at the cinema yesterday.
I have already done my homework.
I have been working since morning.
3) Сослагательное наклонение (the Subjunctive Mood), которое выражает возможность, предположительность или нереальность действия.
Таблица 4
Сослагательное наклонение ( the Subjunctive Mood)
| 0 | If you drop glass, it breaks. |
| I | If the weather is fine, we shall go for a walk. |
| II | If the weather were fine, we should play outside. (сегодня, завтра) |
| III | If I had met you yesterday, I should have told you everything about it. (вчера) |
| IV (смешанный тип) | If I were acquainted with this famous professor, I should have rung him up yesterday. (Условие относится к настоящему времени (II), а следствие – к прошедшему (III). If I had written the composition yesterday, I should be free now. (Условие относится к прошедшему времени (III), а следствие – к настоящему (II). |
Сослагательное II в придаточных дополнительных после глагола wish (хотеть, желать).
В дополнительном придаточном предложении после глагола wish для выражения сожаления, неосуществленного желания употребляются следующие формы сослагательного II:
1) форма, совпадающая с Past Simple, для выражения действия или состояния, относящегося к настоящему времени (от глагола to be может употребляться форма were для всех лиц).
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I wish I were on holiday.
2) форма, совпадающая с Past Perfect, для выражения действия или состояния, относящегося к прошлому.
I wish I had phoned him yesterday.
3) для выражения сожаления в отношении будущего времени в придаточном дополнительном употребляется модельный глагол could.
I wish they could come to see their poor mother tomorrow. She is terribly ill (but they can’t).
Test
1. I'm sure that if you ... hard, you will do well in the test.
A will study B study C studied
2. I wish I …. pass the test.
A can B could Cwill
3. If you ... more, you would have passed this test long ago.
A worked B had worked C had been working
4. If were John, I... not tell everybody about my problems.
A did B could C would
5. Why didn't you buy the car? — If I... it, I would've bought it.
A wanted B had wanted C want
6. It would be nice if he ... me what to do.
A tells Btold Cwill tell
7. If there ... no clouds, we should not enjoy the sun. (proverb)
A are B were C would be
8. What... we do if she doesn't keep her word? — I wish I...
A shall; knew B would; would know C '11; know
9. If he hadn't helped me, I... all my money two years ago.
A would lose B had lost C would have lost
10. Could you trust him if you ... me? — I wish I....
A will be; can B were; could C are; did
11. Unless you ... the law, you may be fined or arrested.
A don't obey B obey C won't obey
12. Jane is sorry her father is dead. If he he would be proud of her. A had been alive B would be alive C were alive
13. If you'd like me to speak to her, I....
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A would B could C will
14. English is necessary for his work. He wishes he ... it last year.
A had learnt B learnt C could learn
15. I wish I... more time; I ... go to the movies.
A have;' will B had; could C will have; would
16. It ………. silly if we tried to walk there.
A is B would be C would have been
17. She’d have taken me to the station if her car ………… down.
A dousn’t break B wouldn’t break C wouldn’t have broken
18. Even if I ……… a wet-suit, I wouldn’t go scuba diving.
A have B had C had have
19. If you ………….., he won’t help you.
A didn’t ask B will ask C don’t ask
20. ………….. after their dog again if they do on holiday this year?
A Will you look B Did you look C Are you looking
SLEEP AND DREAMS
Key words on the topic: read, translate, train the pronunciation, memorize.
to alternate – to occur in turn repeatedly
onset – beginning
to coin– to invent (a new word or phrase)
REM sleep - rapid eye movement sleep
NREM sleep: non-rapid eye movement sleep
trunk - a person's or animal's body apart from the limbs and head
infants - are children between the ages of five and seven, who go to an infant school
emotional disturbance
self-esteem - confidence in one's own worth or abilities
competence - the ability to do something successfully or efficiently
2. Read the text:
“Man should forget his anger before he lies down to sleep”
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)
We may not give it a moment's thought, but most of us will probably spend the third of our lives asleep. Yet the nature of sleep has puzzled mankind for thousands of years; it is only in the last quarter of a century that researchers have made scientific attempts to investigate this world, trying to find out why some people have enormous difficulty falling asleep, while others find it impossible to stay awake. Far from being a passive state, sleep is a remarkably active one. While the sleeper is outwardly calm, the electrical activity of the brain never stops. As the sleep becomes deeper and deeper, the brain-waves become larger and more spread out.
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While the sleeper still thinks thoughts and moves occasionally, the metabolic processes slow down and the heartbeat drops until deep sleep is reached.
Every day every human being experiences two kinds of sleep that alternate rhythmically throughout the entire sleep period. The discovery of the two kinds of sleep occurred almost accidentally at the University of Chicago.In 1952 Dr. Kleitman became interested in the slow rolling eye movements that accompany sleep onset and decided to look for these eye movements throughout the night to determine whether they were related to the depth or quality of sleep. An entirely new kind of eye movement was noticed at certain times during night, the eyes began to dart about furiously beneath the closed lids.
Dr. Kleitman coined the term "REM" (for Rapid - Eye -Movement sleep) to define the phenomenon he and his collegues observed. The other kind eventually acquired the name "NREM" I'nonrem ] sleep. The "NREM" state is often called "quiet sleep", because of the slow, regular breathing, the general absence of body movement, and the slow, regular brain activity shown in the EEG. The body is not paralyzed during NREM sleep. The first sleep of the night is always NREM sleep, which must progress through its various stages before the first REM period occurs. REM sleep, which has been called "active sleep" is an entirely different state of existence. At the onset of REM sleep the sleeper's body is still immobile, but we can see small, convulsive twitches of his face and fingertips.
Experts speculate that REM sleep protects us from acting out our dreams and hurting ourselves, and that it is not really sleep at all, but a state in which the subject is awake, but paralyzed and hallucinating. The sleeper's breathing becomes irregular — very fast, then slow — he may even appear to stop breathing for several seconds. If you gently pull back the eyelids the sleeper seems to be actually looking at something. Cerebral blood flow and brain temperature soar to new heights, but large muscles of the body are completely paralyzed: arms, legs, and trunk cannot move.
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The NREM-REM cycle varies from 70 to 110 minutes, but averages around 90 min. In the early part of the night sleep is dominated by the NREM state, but as the night progresses, the periods of quiet sleep become shorter and the REM episodes longer. The first REM period lasts 10 min., but by early morning they can last as long as an hour. So we are believed to go into REM sleep and dream roughly every 90 m, all night long. So most of us sleep in two distinct ways: REM sleep, when we dream, and "quiet" sleep when we simply sleep.
The fact that it is more difficult to awaken a person from REM than from NREM sleep provides some initial support for Freud's idea that dreams protect sleep. An additional partial test of the Freudian theory is to deprive subjects of REM sleep, thus depriving them of dreams. If subjects arc-awakened every time there is an onset of REM, they have a night's sleep without dreams. Early experiments indicated that after such deprivation there was more REM sleep the following night, indicating that there is a kind of "quota" for REM; and when there is less REM sleep one night, more will be required the next. Indirectly, this would support the Freudian theory of dreams as a protector of sleep. However, other findings of sleep and dream studies contradict the interpretation of REM as a protector of sleep. In the first place, REM is prominent in infants, when meaningful! Dreams are unlikely to occur, and also in lower mammals. The study of the dreams of older children shows that their dreams reflect the realistic activities of their waking lives and that emotional disturbances occur in their dreams when there are emotional disturbances in their waking lives (Foulkes, 1971).
The only conclusion to be drawn is that the psycho-physiological studies of dreams have given little support to the Freudian theory that the purpose of dreams is to protect sleep.
But from the work done so far, it appears that dreaming serves several cognitive functions: it is measurably involved in mood changes; it seems to provide the energy space for working out problems set aside through days filled with busy activity; and, in general, it offers a kind of workshop for the repair of self-esteem (чувство собственного достоинства) and competence.
3. Answer the following questions:
1. Is sleep a passive state? Why?
2. How did Dr. Kleitman discover the two kinds of sleep?
3. How did he call the two kinds of sleep?
4. Can you describe the "NREM" state?
5. What is REM sleep itself?
6. How does the NREM-REM cycle function?
7. Have the psycho-physiological studies of dreams given support to the Freudian theory that the purpose of dreams is to protect sleep?
8. What will happen if a person is deprived of dreams?
9. What are the other findings of sleep and dream studies that contradict the interpretation of REM as a protector of sleep?
10. What cognitive functions can dreaming serve.
4. Mark these statements TRUE (T) or FALSE (F):
1. During ‘QUIET SLEEP’ brain activity stops
2. At the onset of REM sleep the sleeper's body is still mobile, but we can”t
see small, convulsive twitches of his face and fingertips .
3. The first REM period lasts 10 min., but by early morning they can last as long as an hour.
4. Lower mammals are unlikely see dreams.
5. It appears that dreaming serves several cognitive functions: it is measurably involved in mood changes; it seems to provide the energy space for working out problems set aside through days filled with busy activity; and, in general, it offers a kind of workshop for the repair of self-esteem and competence.
UNIT 7.
GRAMMAR : С o гласование времен. Косвенная речь.
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