Expressive means of semasiology ( basic mechanism of secondary nomination, figures of substitution as language units of secondary nomination; metaphor; metonymy; irony).
- Semasiology is a branch of science that studies the meaning of language units of different levels. Any language unit possesses a definite meaning but not every meaning is of stylistic importance. The subject matter of Stylistics is additional meanings which appear in two cases: 1) in cases of unusual denotative relatedness of words, word combinations or even texts and 2) in case of unusual compatibility of meanings of language units (O.M. Morokhovsky). Hence, the subject matter of Stylistic Semasiology is expressive means and stylistic devices of the lexical language level. They are defined as the special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance (I.R.Galperin).
-Prof. Morokhovsky claims that expressive means (or figures of substitution) are based on the mechanism of secondary nomination. Secondary nomination is determined by the tendency of any language to economize language means and analytical activities of human mind, i.e. existing words and word combinations are used for naming \ denoting new notions or are used as new names of existing notions. Secondary nomination is not arbitrary. It conforms to some regularities \ laws. Most frequently transference of meaning occurs on the basis of likeness (metaphor) or contiguity (metonymy) of two objects or phenomena.
-O.M. Morokhovsky classifies figures of substitution into figures of quantity and figures of quality. Figures of guantity are based on comparison of quantitative features of two different objects or phenomena (hyperbole and meiosis, litotes). Figures of quality are based on comparison of qualitative features of two different objects (metaphor, metonymy, irony and figures based on either metaphoric (1) or metonymic (2) transference of meaning – (1) epithet, antonomasia, personification, allegory, (2) synecdoche, periphrasis). All these figures of speech are cases of secondary nomination dealing with transferred/ occasional/ figurative meaning of the word. Since ancient times much attention was drawn to the three tropes – metaphor, metonymy and irony.
- Aristotle claims that metaphor consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else; the transference being either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or on grounds of analogy. I.R. Galperin states that metaphor means transference of some quality from one object to another, it has the power of realizing two lexical meanings simultaneously. V.A. Kukharenko argues that metaphor is transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects.
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In the theory of metaphor originated by I. Richards this stylistic device involves two parts: “tenor” which means the original idea and “vehicle” that means the borrowed idea compared to this subject. In Shakespearian Life is but a walking shadow tenor is life and vehicle is shadow.
Metaphors (met.) can be classified from various viewpoints. G. Leech defines the following semantic classes of met.: a) concretive, which attributes concreteness to an abstraction: the pain of separation; b) animistic, which attributes animate characteristics to the inanimate: the shoulder of the hill; c) humanizing, which attributes characteristics of humanity to what is not human: his appearance speak for him; d) synaesthetic, which transfers meaning from one domain of sensory perception to another: his beams sing and his music shines.
According to the degree of unexpectedness there are genuine, unexpected met., and trite (dead, hackneyed met) commonly used in speech. According to the structure met. are: simple and sustained (extended, prolonged, developed). The latter can be conveyed in a sentence or in a number of sentences or even paragraphs.
N.D. Arutyunova singles out the following functions of met.: 1) primary – the function of characterization, 2) secondary – identification of the objects. In poetic speech met. performs an aesthetic aim; its function is to stir up images, ideas, notions, but not to convey information.
- According to prof. I.R.Galperin Metonymy is based on some kind of association connecting the two concepts they represent. V.A. Kukharenko claims that metonymy is based on contiguity / nearness of objects or phenomena. According to Professor Galperin the most common types of relations which metonymy is based on are the following: a) a concrete thing is used instead of an abstract notion: The camp, the pulpit and the law for rich men’s sons are free; b) the container instead of the thing contained: The hall applauded; c) the relation of proximity: The round game table was boisterous and happy; d) the material instead of the thing made of it: The marble spoke; e) the instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself: The sword is the worst argument that can be used.
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Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy when a part stands for the whole and the whole stands for a part: Pip…heard the footstep stumble in coming on.
-The problem of the status of Irony was first viewed by Aristotle: it’s a kind of comical when we speak differently than we feel. In the basis of irony there lies simultaneous realization of two meanings: direct and figurative between which the relations of opposition appear. Irony can be classified into verbal irony; situational irony; dramatic irony;attitudinal irony.
Irony creates modality on different levels:
1. Lexical level: a) “blame-by-praise” – when positive changes into negative: How clever of you!; b) occasionalisms: плюшкинская щедрость; c) a polysemantic word: Robert: We’re all children once.Frederica: What a pious remark.
2. Syntactic level: a)negation by affirmation;b)patterns What a …, Such a …: What a witty guy! c) rhetorical questions: Sensitive people have deep feelings, don’t they? They suffer a lot.
3. Text level: a) confusion of the speech styles;b) quotations: I’m the victim. I have always been the victim. Pass the butter to the victim. c)repetition – any semantic unit in a new structural position receives additional meaning: Louise: You haven’t the faintest idea how to deal with sensitive people. Stanley: If it weren’t for the saving grace of his mother. His sensitive mother.
The function of irony is not confined to producing humoristic or satiric effect. Its main stylistic function is to convey evaluating attitude toward the object of the statement. It can express irritation, pity, displeasure, regret, etc.
Syntactic stylistic means ( stylistically unmarked and marked sentence model, classification of syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices; the word order; inversion; syntactic repetition).
-Expressive means are always considered to be stylistically marked members of stylistic paradigm on any language level. An unmarked \ neutral syntactic model in the English language is S-P-O(dir)-O(ind)-A, which does not convey any additional information. This model can convey additional information only due to transferred meanings of words. Being transformed into interrogative or imperative sentences the neutral model does not acquire connotative meaning, but its various transformations into other models of declarative sentences make it stylistically marked. Hence, there arises a possibility to point out expressive means and stylistic devices on the level of syntax as marked members of the stylistic paradigm. By syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices there is understood the arrangement of phrases, sentences and paragraphs with the purpose of producing some stylistic effect. They are used to emphasize the object, phenomenon in question, to make the utterance more prominent.
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- According to prof. O.M. Morokhovsky expressive means (EMs) convey additional logical or expressive information, enhance pragmatic effectiveness of speech activity. The scholar worked out the following classification of syntactic expressive means in accordance with the types of transformation of the initial model: 1) EMs, based on the reduction of the initial model (e.g. ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominal / nominative sentences, asyndeton); 2) EMs, based on the expansion of the initial model (e.g. repetition, enumeration, syntactic tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic construction, parenthetic sentences); 3) EMs, based on the changing of the order of the components in the initial model (e.g. inversion, detachment).
Syntactic stylistic devices (SDs) are created due to transpositions of the initial model in a definite situational context. Prof. Morokhovsky classifies them into the following three groups in accordance with the types of relations between syntactic structures and types of transposition of their meaning: 1) SDs, based on formal and notional relations between some syntactic constructions (e.g. parallel constructions, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora); 2) SDs, based on the transposition of meaning of syntactic structures (e.g. rhetorical question); 3) SDs, based on the transposition of meaning of the ways of connection between the components of sentences or sentences (e.g. parcellation). Now, it is worth while considering the nature and stylistic functions of some stylistically marked structures, such as sentences with inverted word order and syntactic repetitons.
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- It is generally acknowledged that the first and the last places in the sentence are considered to be more conspicuous: the first place – because the full force of the stress can be felt at the beginning of the utterance and the last place because there is a pause after it. Thus, there may be semantically insignificant elements of the sentence placed in a structurally significant position. According to professor V.A. Kukharenko inversion is a SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate (predicative) precedes the subject, or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair. Stylistic inversion does not change the structural meaning of the sentence. It aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance, which results in specific intonation.
Professor I.R. Galperin singles out the following types of stylistic inversion, which are most frequently used in the English prose and poetry: 1) the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence: Talent Mr. Micawber has, Capital Mr. Micawber has not; 2) the attribute is placed after the word it modifies, especially when there is more than one attribute: with his mood low and dejected; 3) the predicative is placed before the subject or before the link-verb: raw and chill the winter morning was; 4) both adverbial modifier and predicate stand before the subject when a postpositional element is at the beginning; it shows swiftness of the action: out came the chaise – in went the horses; 5) the adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence: Eagerly I wished it!
- One of the expressive means of language used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotion is repetition. Prof. V.A. Kukharenko defines repetition as a recurrence of the same word, word combination, phrase for two or more times. Repetitions are used to single out and intensify the idea and the theme of the text; to maintain the rhythm of the text. According to the place which the repeated unit occupies in a sentence repetitions are classified into several groups (V.A. Kukharenko): 1) anaphora: a…,a…,a…The function of this repetition is to create the background for the nonrepeated unit; 2) epiphora: …a, …a, …a. The main function of epiphora is to add stress to the final words of the sentence. 3) framing repetition: a…a. The function of this repetition is to elucidate the idea. 4) anadiplosis / catch repetition: …a, a… The function: to specify the semantics of the repeated element. 5) chain repetition: …a,a…b,b…c,c… It shows smooth development of ideas. 6) ordinary repetition: has no definite place in the sentence - …a, …a…, a … It emphasizes the logical and the emotional meanings of the repeated word. 7) successive repetition: …a, a, a. It shows the peak of emotions of the speaker. One may single out root repetitions (root morphemes are repeated); synonymous / synonymic repetitions (when the idea is repeated, not the word itself in order to add some shade of meaning).
- The purely syntactic type of repetition is parallel construction. It is a device which is characterized by identical or similar syntactical structure in two or more sentences in close succession: “There were, …, real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and the real china cups to drink it out of, and the plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in.” (Dickens). Parallel constructions do not depend on any other type of repetition but if they are backed by lexical repetitions the effect produced by the utterance will be stronger. Parallel construction is often used in different styles of writing with slightly different functions. In scientific prose, for example, it carries the idea of semantic equality of the parts of sentences; in belles-lettres style it performs an emotive function.
- Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of a chiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the first construction. Thus, if the first sentence or clause has a direct word order (SPO), the second one has inverted word order (OPS): “Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down.” (Coleridge). Like parallel constructions chiasmus contributes to the rhythm of the sentence brining in some new shades of meaning of the second part of the sentence.
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