The difference between inflection and derivation
Inflectionis a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes (always suffixes in English) to produce alternative grammatical forms of words (e.g., the addition of the inflexion -er to the adjective cold gives colder), which is not a different lexical item, but an inflectional variant of the same word. One of the most important characteristics of inflectional suffixes is that they tend to lend themselves to paradigms which apply to the language as a whole [Jackson 2001:71]. The paradigm of a major word class consists of a single stem of that class with the inflexional suffixes which the stem may take.
Finally, under inflections, the distinction between “regular” and “irregular” inflections needs to be pointed out. Regular inflections are those that are formed according to a common pattern, e.g. –s for the plural of nouns. Irregular inflections are those that do not follow this pattern, e.g. some nouns form their plurals irregularly: child – children, mouse – mice, tooth – teeth.
As for derivation, it is a lexical process which actually forms a new word out of an existing one by the addition of a derivational affix. For example, the suffixes -dom and -ful may be added to the adjective free and the noun hope respectively to derive the noun freedom and the adjective hopeful, which again are different words. Following H.Jackson [2001:70] it may be said that strictly speaking, the term “derivation” refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem.
English has over sixty common derivational affixes, and there is no theoretical limit to their number. Derivations have a “low functional load”, in the sense that each single derivation occurs rarely and is limited to a few specific combinations with particular stems. In other words, they tend not to be paradigms which apply to sets of words as a whole.
Derivational affixes do not always cause a change in grammatical class, e.g. intelligent/unintelligent, probable/improbable, but sometimes they can change the word class of the item they are added to and establish words as member of the various classes. They are inner with respect to inflections, so that if derivations and inflections co-occur, derivations are inner, closer to the stem, and inflections are outer, furthest from the stem, as shown in the table below [Jackson 2001:74].
Derivational affixes are of such kinds: class-changing and class-maintaining. Class changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added. They, resign, a verb + -ation gives resignation, a noun. Class – maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the word, but change the meaning of the derivative (i/e/ a word which results from the derivation). Thus child, a noun + -hood gives childhood, still a noun, but now an abstract rather than a concrete noun.
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Class-changing derivational affixes, once added to a stem, form a derivative which is automatically marked by that affix as noun, verb, adjective or adverb. The derivations are said to determine or govern the word class of the stem as will be shown below, English class-changing derivations are mainly suffixes.
Noun derivational affixes “nominalizers” , e.g.
Verb derivational affixes, also known as “verbalizers”, are used to form verbs from other stems. When compared with other derivational affixes, they are rather rare, because verbs are the most basic forms in English: while they are used to derive other words, they themselves are not readily derived from other forms.
Adjective derivational affixes or “adjectivizers” are used to form adjectives when added to a given stem. In English, adjectives are generally formed from nouns, more rarely from verbs [Jackson 2001:77]
Adverb derivational affixes or “adverbializers” are affixes which form adverbs when added to a given stem. Adverbs, in English, are generally formed from adjectives, sometimes from nouns.
Class-maintaining derivations refer to those derivations which do not change the word class of the stem to which they are added although they do change its meaning. Unlike class-changing derivations, which are mainly suffixes, English class-maintaining derivations are mainly prefixes.
According to Prof.Amosova suffixes are used not only to form new words but also to mark parts of speech. Accordingly they are subdivided into noun-forming suffixes, verb-forming suffixes, adjective and adverb-forming suffixes.
English Phraseology.
- Phraseology is a kind of picture gallery in which are collected vivid and amusing sketches of the nation’s customs, traditions and prejudices, scraps of folk-songs and fairy-tales. Also phraseology is considered to be not only the most colourful but probably the most democratic area of vocabulary and draws its resources mostly from the very depth of popular speech [Antrushina p.225]. So, English phraseology is a huge and intricate mixture of set word combinations, ranging stylistically from neutral literary expressions to the taboo [Kunin 1984:16].
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- Word-groups viewed as functionally and semantically inseparable units are usually described as word-equivalents are traditionally regarded as the subject matter of the branch of lexicological science that studies phraseology [Ginzburg 1966:100]. In modern linguistics there is considerable confusion about the terminology associated with word-groups. Most Russian scholars use the term ‘phraseological unit’ (фразеологічна одиниця) which was first introduced by Academician V.V.Vinogradov. The term ‘idiom’ is widely used by western scholars. In the “Illustrated American Idioms” Dean Curry points out: “Idioms form a very important part of American English. They are used to give life and richness to the language by enabling it to absorb new concepts which need to be expressed linguistically in a new way. Idioms take existing words, combine them in a new sense, and bring forth new expressions”. In our further discussion the traditional term ‘phraseological units’ is used: stable word-groups characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning [Kveselevich 2001:84]. There are some other terms denoting more or less the same linguistic phenomenon: set-expressions, set-phrases, phrases, fixed word-group, collocations. The confusion in the terminology reflects insufficiency of positive or wholly reliable criteria by which phraseological units can be distinguished from ‘free’ word-groups. This is probably the most discussed and the most controversial problem in the field of phraseology. According to Prof. Antrushina [2001:229] there are two major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units and free word-groups: semantic and structural.
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- From the semantic point view phraseological units are said to be characterized by semantic unity, i.e. may be defined as word-groups conveying a single concept (whereas in free word-groups each meaningful component stands for a separate concept). This is the feature that makes phraseological units similar to words: both words and phraseological units possess semantic unity, e.g. the meanings of the constituents merge to produce an entily new meaning: to have a bee in one’s bonnet means to have an obsession about something.
The structural criterion also brings forth pronounced distinctive features characterizing phraseological units and free word-groups. Structural invariability is an essential feature of phonological units, though, some of them possess it to a lesser degree than others. So, structural invariability of phraseological units has a number of restrictions: restriction in substitution; restriction in introducing any additional components into the structure of a phraseological unit; grammatical invariability.
- Idioms must be distinguished not only from free phrases but from specially assembled sequences of items which have been called lexical phrases. They are chunks of language in which all the items have been preassembled. Hundreds of such phrases exist of varying length and complexity, such as it seems to me, would you mind, on the one hand. Such phrases are used frequently in both speech and writing, but they are especially important in conversation where they perform a number of roles – expressing agreement, introducing example, changing the topic. The following types of lexical phrases are distinguished [Crystal 1997:163]: polywords – short phrases which function very much like individual lexemes. They cannot be varied and their parts cannot be separated, e.g. by the way; institutionalized expressions – units of sentence length, functioning as separate utterances. Like polywords they are invariable and their parts cannot be separated. They include proverbs, aphorisms, e.g. How do you do? phrasal constraints –these are phrases which allow some degree of variation; they are usually short, e.g. as I was saying/mentioning, good morning/night; sentence builders – phrases that provide the framework for the whole sentences; they allow considerable variation, e.g. my point is that,.
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- Classification of Phraseological Units based on the semantic principle [Kveselevich 2001:84].
Fusions – completely non-motivated idiomatic word-group, e.g. to pull smb’s leg (= to deceive smb.); a white elephant (= a present one can’t get rid of); etc. Half-fusions – stable word-groups in which the leading component in literal, while the rest of the group is idiomaticaly fused, e.g. to rain cats and dogs (to rain heavily), to talk through one’s hat (to talk foolishly). Unities – metaphorically motivated idioms, e.g. to make a mountain out of a molehill (to become excited about trifles); a snake in the grass (a hidden enemy), etc. Half-unities – binary word-groups in which one of the components is literal, while the other is phraseologically bound (the so-termed phrasemes), e.g. black frost (frost without ice or snow), etc. Phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) – word-groups with the components whose combinative power (valency) is strictly limited, e.g. to make friends (not to do friends), etc. Phraseological expressions – proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar quotations, e.g. Still water runs deep (= Тиха вода греблю рве).
- The classification based on the structural principles distinguishes phraseological units into the following classes: Verbal, e.g. to ride the high horse, to drop a brick; Substantive, e.g. a grass window, etc.; Adjectival, e.g. high and mighty,as dead as a door nail, etc.; Adverbial, e.g. from head to foot, etc.; Interjectional, e.g. goodness gracious!
- Phraseological units differ in their functions in the acts of communication. Thus, they fall into 4 classes [Kveselevich 2001:89]: Nominative phraseological units of various patterns which correlate with words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. a dark horse, etc.; Communicative phraseological units represented by proverbs and sayings, e.g. the race is got by running, etc.; Nominative-communicative phraseological units which include nominative verbal idioms that can be transformed into a sentence structure when the verb is used in the Passive Voice, e.g. to put the cart before the horse – the cart was put before the horse, etc. Pragmatic phraseological units (interjectional idioms and response phrases), e.g. My aunt!; Bless your heart!
- Proverbs. Prof. A.V.Koonin includes proverbs in his classification of phraseological units and labels them communicative phraseological unit. From his point of view, one of the main criteria of a phraseological unit is its stability. The criterion of nomination and communication can’t be applied here either, says A.V.Koonin, because there are many verbal phraseological units which are word-groups when the verb is used in the Passive Voice, e.g. to cross the Rubicon – the Rubicon is crossed.Prof. Antrushina remarks that there doesn’t seem to exist any rigid or permanent boarder-line between proverbs and phraseological units as the latter frequently originate from the former, e.g. to catch at a straw originates from a proverb A drowning man catches at straws, etc. [Antrushina p.236].Proverbial expressions have been given a variety of labels: adages, dictums, maxims, mottoes, precepts, and truisms. The terms all convey the notion of a piece of traditional wisdom, handed down by previous generations. In most cases the origin of a proverb is unknown. The effectiveness of a proverb lies largely in its brevity and directness [Crystal p.184]. It is obvious that a proverb, a crystallised summary of popular wisdom or fancy, is certain to have been long current in popular speech before it could make any appearance in literature [Apperson 1993:VII]. The syntax of the proverb is simple, the images vivid, and the allusions domestic, and thus easy to understand. Memorability is aided through the use of alliteration, rhythm and rhyme.
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