ADJECTIVES. ADVERBS. PRONOUNS.

Adjective denotes a quality or a feature of an object.

Semantic characteristics

Morphological characteristics

Syntactic characteristics

qualitative adjectives (colour, shape)

black, round

relative adjectives qualify an object indirectly, through its relation to another object

woolen, golden

Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison

attribute (a poor man)

predicative (The man was poor)

Formation

suffixes

-able fashionable

-al  magical

-ant important

-ar spectacular

-ary disciplinary

-ate delicate

-ial national

-ent      patient

-esque picturesque

-ful      faithful

-ian Iranian

-ible terrible

-ic   melodic

-ical physical

-ious rebellious

-ish stylish

-ist racist

-ive selective

-less faultless

-like woman-like

-ly deathly

-ory sensory

-ous humorous

-some bothersome

-y   sandy

prefixes

a     asexual

ab   abnormal

anti antisocial

dis  disinterested

hyper hyperactive

il         illegible

im immoral

in inactive

ir irresponsible

mal maladjusted

non non-existent

over overweight

pre prearranged

pro     pro-war

sub sub-zero

super superhuman

un  unavailable

under understaffed

Compound adjectives are formed with:

- present participles: a long-playing record

- past participles: undercooked meat, cut-off jeans

- cardinal numbers + nouns (in singular): a ten-minute journey

- well, badly, ill, poorly + past participle: a poorly-kept garden, a well-timed joke.

Order of adjectives

Opinion adjectives

Fact adjectives

size

age

shape

colour

material

use for/be about

beautiful

big

old

round

brown

oak

dining

Substantivized adjectives

There are some adjectives that we can use with the to talk about groups of people in society

Words that we can use in a phrase with the

- to do with social or economic position

- to do with physical condition or health

- to do with age

The young means 'young people in general'

When we mean a specific person or a specific group of people, then we use man, woman, people, etc.

the disabled, the blind

the disadvantaged, the homeless, the hungry, the poor, the privileged, the rich, the starving

the blind, the deaf, the dead, the disabled, the handicapped

the elderly, the middle-aged, the old, the over-sixties, the under-fives

 The young have their lives in front of them.

None of the young people in the village can find jobs here.

Nouns of material, purpose or substance can be used as adjectives.

Direct meaning

Figurative meaning

A silk scarf, a stone cottage, a gold pen, a feather duster, a metal chair, a leather wallet, lead pipes, a steel framework.

silky hair, a stony expression, golden hair, feathery leaves, a metallic colour, a leathery skin, a leaden feeling, a steely look.

Degrees of comparison

There are three degrees of comparison:

Irregular comparisons

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

bad                worse worst

far               farther farthest

                further furthest

good             better best

little              less    least

many/much more most

old            elder  eldest

older  oldest

dark

darker

darkest

one-syllable adj:

positive form + er & est

bright brighter brightest

adj of three or more

syllables :more & most+ the positive:

interested more interested most interested

adj of 2 syllables follow one or other of the above rules

doubtful more doubtful most doubtful, clever cleverer cleverest

farther/farthest & further/furthest

both can be used of distances

York is farther/further than Selby.

Further can be used with abstract nouns to mean ‘additional/extra’

Further discussion/debate would be pointless.

Similarly: further enquires/delays/demands/information/ instructions.

elder, eldest imply seniority rather than age. They are used for comparison within a family:

 my elder brother

But! Elder is not used with than, so we use older: He’s older than I am.

We use eldest for people only, but oldest we use for both people & things.

Before the comparative we should use a bit, a little, slightly, much, a lot, far:

English is a bit/ a little/ slightly/ much/ a lot/ far more easier than German.

Constructions with comparisons

Positive form => ‘+’ as … as; ‘-‘ not as/not so … as.

          He was as white as a sheet.

Your coffee is not as/so good as the coffee my mother makes.

The new building is  twice as high as the old one. – в 2 раза выше

Comparative form => than.

He’s stronger than I expected = I didn’t expect him to be so strong.

Superlative form => the … in/of:

This is the oldest theatre in London.

Superlative form + present perfect:

This is the worst film I have ever seen.

Note!most+adjective without the means very:

You’re most kind = You’re very kind.

the + comparative… the + comparative:

The smaller the house is, the less it will cost us to heat it.

Comparatives joined by and:

The weather is getting colder and colder.

like + noun & as + noun:

He worked like a slave. (very hard indeed)

He worked as a slave. (He was a slave)

than/as + pronoun+auxiliary

I earn less than he does. (=less than he earns)

than/as+I/we/you+verb = omit the verb.

I’m not as old as you (are).

than/as is followed by he/she/it + verb, we normally keep the verb: You’re stronger than he is.

But we can drop the verb and use him/her/them:

I swim better a him.

Adjectives + one/ones

One/ones = previously mentioned noun:

I lost my old camera; this is a new one.

first/second can be used with or without one/ones:

Which train did you catch? ~ I caught the first (one).

Adjectives of colour can sometimes be used as

    pronouns:

          I like the blue (one) best.

‘as …as…’ with ‘twice’, ‘three times’, etc., ‘half’, ‘a third’, etc.:

Japan’s car exports are twice as high as Britain’s. Rice-growing is only half as important as it used to be.

Note Present and Past Participles can be used as adjectives: Present Participles describe the quality of a noun /annoying behaviour/ (what kind of behaviour)

Past Participles describe how the subject feels /annoyed teacher/ (How does the teacher feel)

Proverbs & Sayings

As dumb as a wooden Indian

As easy as ABC

As silent as a grave

As fit as a fiddle

As white as a sheet

As stubborn as a mule

Дурний, як пробка

Простіше простого

Німий, як могила

При повному здоров'ї

Білий, як крейда

Упертий, як осел

As old as the hills

Like bull in a China shop

To sleep like a log

To smoke like a chimney

To sell like hot cakes

Старе, як світ.

Як слон у посудній лавці

Спати, як убитий

Диміти, як труба

Бути нарозхват

The best is the enemy of the good. (Walter Scott)

It’s much easier to be critical than to be correct. (Disraeli)

Adverb is a part of speech which describes verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or the whole sentence.

Formation

Adverbs are formed with adjectives + -ly: quick – quickly, calm – calmly

Adj. ending in consonant + -y → -ily: sleep – sleepily, weary – wearily

Adj. ending in –le drop –le & add –ly: irritable – irritably, reliable – reliably

Adj. ending in –e add –ly: false – falsely, BUT: whole – wholly, true – truly

Adj. ending in –ly (cowardly, elderly, fatherly, friendly, lively, lonely, motherly, silly, ugly etc) form their adv. with –in a(n) … way (manner): in a motherly manner, in a lively way etc.

Semantic classification

Kinds of adverbs

Position

Example

Manner (bravely, happily, fast, hard, well, beautifully, reluctantly, suspiciously, carefully, angrily, secretly, foolishly, badly, somehow)

After the verb or the object where there is one

The short obj.:V+obj.+adv.

The long obj.: V+adv.+obj.

Foolishly, kindly, stupidly,…+V

She danced beautifully. They speak E. well.

He looked suspiciously at everyone.

She carefully picked up all the bits of glass.

I foolishly forgot my passport.

Place (by, down, here, near, there, up, away, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere)

After the verb if there is no object

V+obj./V+prep.+obj.

Here/there+be/come/go+noun subj.

Away/down/in/off/out…+V of motion+noun subj.

She went away. Bill is upstairs.

She sent him away.

Here comes the train.

Away went the runners.

Out sprang the cuckoo.

Time (now, soon, still, then, today, tomorrow, yet, afterwards, eventually, lately, recently, at one, since then, till)

At the beginning/end of the clause

With compound tenses – after the auxiliary

V/ V+obj.+ yet/still

Be+still+other verbs

Just – with compound sentences

Eventually he came/ He came eventually.

We will soon be there.

He hasn’t finished his dinner yet.

He is still in bed.

I’m just coming.

Frequency (always, usually, often, periodically, repeatedly, occasionally, hardly ever, rarely, seldom, never)

After the simple tenses of to be

Before the simple tenses of all other verbs

With compound tenses – after the 1^st auxiliary, with interrogative V. – after aux.+subj.

He is always in time for meals.

They sometimes stay up all night.

He can never understand.

Have you ever ridden a camel?

Degree (fairly, hardly, quite, too, very, absolutely, almost, completely, only, rather)

Before the adj. or adv.

Enough follows its adj. or adv.

Far requires a comparative/ too+positive

You are absolutely right.

The box isn’t big enough.

It is far better to say anything.

Sentence (certainly, definitely, luckily, actually, apparently, clearly, evidently, obviously, presumably, probably, undoubtedly, perhaps, possibly, sure)

Be+actually/apparently/certainly/clearly etc.

Before simple tenses of other verbs

After the 1^st auxiliary in a compound verb

At the beginning/end of a sentence/ clause

He is certainly intelligent.

They actually work hard.

They have presumably sold their house.

Apparently he knew the town well.

Interrogative (when?, where?, why?)

At the beginning of a sentence

Where have you been?

Relative (when, where, why)

Before the obj.

I want to know where he is.

Morphological classification - degrees of comparison of some adverbs.

Single-syllable adv. & early add –er,-est: hard-harder-hardest, early-earlier-earliest

Adv. of 2 or more syllables – more,most+the positive form: quickly-more quickly-most quickly

Irregular comparisons: well-better-best, badly-worse-worst, little-less-least, much-more-most, far-further-furthest/farther-farthest.

Adjectives & Adverbs which have the same form

Best, better, big, cheap*, clean,* close*, cold, daily, dead, dear*, deep, direct, dirty, early, easy, extra, far, fast, fine*, free, further, hard, high, hourly, inside, kindly, last, late, long, loud*, low, monthly, past, quick*, quiet*, right, slow, straight, sure, thin*, thick, tight, weekly, well, wide, wrong, yearly etc.

Ann was our last guest. She came in last. Those adv. with an asterisk (*) can be found with –ly ending without a difference in meaning, but then they are more formal. Walk slow! (informal) ALSO Walk slowly! (formal)

Adverbs with 2 forms & differences in meaning

Full=exactly, very

Fully=completely

Hard=with effort

Hardly=scarcely (майже!)

High=at/to a high level

Last=after all others

Lastly=finally

Late=not early

Lately=recently

Near=close

Nearly=almost (ледве не!)

Pretty=fairly

Prettily=in a pretty way

Short=suddenly

Shortly=soon

Quite-Fairly-Rather-Pretty

• Quite (fairly, in some degree) is used in favourable comments. She is quite good at painting.

Quite meaning “completely” is used with adv., some verbs & adj. such as: along, amazing, brilliant, certain, dead, dreadful, different, exhausted, extraordinary, false, horrible, impossible, perfect, ridiculous, right, sure, true, useless etc. I’m quitesure he stole the money.

Quite is used before a/an. She is quite a good dancer.

• Rather is used: a) in unfavourable comments: He is rather mean with money.

                        b) in favourable comments meaning “to an unusual degree”: The lecture was rather informative.(more than we expected)

                       c) with comparative degree: It’s rather sunnier today then yesterday.(набагато сонячніше)

Rather is used before or after a / an: He is a rather rude person. = He is rather a rude person

• Fairly & pretty are synonymous with quite & rather. They can be used after a. He is a fairly/pretty well-behaved person.

Patterns with adverbs

Deeply hurt

Painfully embarrassed

Highly respected / qualified / paid / educated

Extremely helpful

Bitterly cold

Nearly forgot

To be short of time

*Sadly

To fly direct to …

Proverbs & Sayings

Promise little but do much.

If you want a thing well done, do it yourself.

A new groom sweeps clean.

Actions speak louder than words.

Easier said than done.

Make haste slowly.

To live long it is necessary to live slowly.

Of two evils choose the least.

Дата добавления: 2018-10-26; просмотров: 811; Мы поможем в написании вашей работы!