SDs based on the peculiarities of oral speech
These SDs are ellipsis, aposiopesis, represented speech.
Ellipsisis a deliberate omission from the construction of one or more words which are obviously understood
E.g. I went to Oxford as one goes into exile, she to London.
In contemporary prose ellipsis is mainly used in dialogue where it employed by the author to reflect the natural omission characterizing oral colloquial speech. In written speech ellipsis makes the sentence laconic and creates the effect of implication.
Ellipsis is the basis of the so-called telegraphic style in which connectives and redundant words are left out.
Aposiopesis (Break-in-the-Narrative) - умолчание, недосказ
It is the sudden breaking off in speech without completing a thought as if the speaker was unable or unwilling to state what was in his mind. It is used to convey the emotional state of the character. In this SD the intonation plays a great role. It is graphically marked by a series of dots or a dash
E.g. You just come home or I’ll…(the implication of a threat).
Good intentions but…(nothing has come of what was planned).
The pause after the break is generally charged with meaning.
Represented speech
There are three ways of reproducing actual speech:
2) direct speech;
3) indirect speech;
4) represented speech.
Represented speech exists in two types: uttered represented speech and unuttered (inner) represented speech.
Uttered represented speechdemands that the tense should be switched from present to past. The personal pronouns should be changed from the first and the second to the third persons. As in indirect speech the syntactical structure does not change
E.g. Could he bring a reference from where he now was? He could.
Sometimes the shift from the author’s speech to the uttered represented speech is marked by some introductory words such as asked, said, smiled or by a formal break like a full stop or a number of dots.
E.g. In consequence he was quick to suggest a walk… didn’t Clyde want to go?
Unuttered represented speech
The thoughts and feelings going on in one’s mind and reflecting some previous experience are called inner speech.
It is psychological phenomenon but when it acquires a communicative function it becomes a phenomenon of the language. The expressive function of the language is suppressed by its communicative function, and the reader is presented with a complete language unite capable of carrying information. This device is called inner represented speech. It retains the most characteristic features of inner speech. Inner represented speech unlike uttered represented speech expresses thoughts and feelings of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language by the character. That is why it abounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical sentences and other means of conveying psychological states. The person gives vent to his emotions and this SD is used to depict the character. It is usually introduced by the verbs to feel, to think, to understand, to tell oneself, to ask, to occur, to meditate and the like
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E.g. over and over he was asking himself: Would she receive him? Would she recognize him? What should he say to her?
SDs based on the stylistic use of interrogative and negative constructions (rhetorical questions, litotes)
Rhetorical questionis a special SSD the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. It is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative sentence. Rhetorical questions express different shades of meaning: doubt, irony, challenge, etc. they do not demand any information but serve to express the emotions of the speaker and also to call the attention of listeners. In fact the speaker knows the answer himself and gives it immediately after the question is asked. The interrogative intonation or punctuation draws the attention of listener (reader) to the focus of utterance
E.g. Are these the remedies for a starving and desperate populace?
Litotesis a SD consisting of a peculiar use of negative construction, a type of understatement made for emphasis.
E.g. It is not a bad thing.- It is a good thing.
The negation does not indicate the absence of the quality mentioned but suggests the presence of the opposite quality.
SDs used within an utterance
SDs based on parallelism
Parallel constructions (Parallelism) are formed by the same syntactical patterns closely following one another. They are often backed up by repetition of words and conjunctions and prepositions. It does not on any other kind of repetition but the repetition of the syntactical design of the sentence.
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E.g. The coach was waiting, the horses were fresh, the roads were good
and the driver was willing.
E.g. And so, from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe,
E.g. And then, from hour to hour, we rot and rot.
In the example parallelism backs up repetition, alliteration making the whole sentence almost epigrammatic.
Parallelism can be complete or partial. It is complete when the construction of the second sentence fully copies that of the first. It is partial when only the beginning or the end of several sentences is structurally similar.
Parallelism strongly affects the rhythmical organization of the paragraph. So it is imminent of the oratorical speech in pathetic and emphatic extracts. In most cases parallelism is strengthened by the repetition or antithesis.
Reversed parallelismis called chiasmus (хиазм – инверсия во второй половине фразы).
It belong to the group of SDs based on a repetition of syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The second part of the chiasmus is inversion of the first construction
E.g. I know the world and the world knows me.
E.g. It is strange, - but true, for truth is always strange.
E.g. There are so many sons who won’t have anything to do with their fathers and so many fathers who won’t have anything to do with their sons.
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