Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features:
Myopia presents with blurry distance vision but good near vision.
Causes: a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
Diagnosis:an eye examination by an ophthalmologist. Frequently an autorefractor or retinoscope is used to give an initial objective assessment of the refractive status of each eye, then a phoropter is used to subjectively refine the patient's eyeglass prescription. A phoropter is an instrument commonly used by eye care professionals during an eye examination, containing different lenses used for refraction of the eye during sight testing to measure an individual's refractive error and determine his or her eyeglass prescription.
Prevention:There is no universally accepted method of preventing myopia. Commonly attempted preventative methods: wearing reading glasses, convex lenses, eye drops and participating in more outdoor activities.
Management:eyeglasses, contact lenses, and refractive surgery; eye exercises and relaxation techniques such as the Bates method.
Myopia control:atropine of varying strength in stabilizing, and in some case, reducing myopia.
Cataract
Phonetic exercise:cataract [‘kætærəkt], crystalline [‘kristəlain], lens [lenz], congenital [kən’d3enətl], opacity [əu’pæsiti], [əb’strΛktiv], senile [‘si:nail], immature [,imə‘tjuə], anterior [æn’tiəriə], posterior [p 
s’tiəriə], capsular [‘kæpsjulə], acuity [ə’kju:iti], contours [‘k ntuəz], ultraviolet [,Λltrə‘vaiəlet], light [lait], exposure [iks’pəu3ə], trauma [‘tr :mə], extraction [iks’træk∫n], majority [mə’d3 rəti], intact [in’tækt], detachment [di’tæt∫mənt], eyes [aiz], refractive [ri’fræktiv], defect [di’fekt], image [‘imid3], prevalence [‘prevələns], occurrence [ə’kΛrəns; ə’k 
:rəns], genetic [d3ə’netik, d3i’netik], environmental [in,vaiərən’mentl]
Make a report on cataract according to the plan below:
Definition: a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the eye or in its envelope, varying in degree from slight to complete opacity and obstructing the passage of light.
Epidemiology:Age-related cataract is responsible for 48% of world blindness, which represents about 18 million people, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).
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Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: loss of visual acuity, lost contrast sensitivity, less vivid contours, shadows, an absent red reflex.
Causes:long-term exposure to ultraviolet light, exposure to radiation, secondary effects of diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and advanced age, atopic or allergic conditions, iodine deficiency, drugs such as corticosteroids, genetic factors, a positive family history of cataracts, eye injury or physical trauma, excessive exposure to radiation, exposure to microwave radiation.
Commercial airline pilots are three times more likely to develop cataracts than people with non-flying jobs.
Treatment:cataract surgery, capsulotomy; two types of eye surgery: extra-capsular (extracapsular cataract extraction, or ECCE) and intra-capsular (intracapsular cataract extraction, or ICCE).
Cataract operations are usually performed using a local anaesthetic and the patient is allowed to go home the same day.
Complications after cataract surgery: including endophthalmitis, posterior capsular opacification and retinal detachment.
GLAUCOMA
Phonetic exercise:glaucoma [gl :’kəumə], blindness [‘blaindnis], cataract [‘kætærəkt], crystalline [‘kristəlain], lens [lenz], congenital [kən’d3enətl], opacity [əu’pæsiti], obstructive [əb’strΛktiv], defect [di’fekt], image [‘imid3], prevalence [‘prevələns], occurrence [ə’kΛrəns; ə’k :rəns], genetic [d3ə’netik, d3i’netik], environmental [in,vaiərən’mentl], progressive [prəu’gresiv], irreversible [,irri’və:səbl], attacks [ə’tæks], intraocular [,intrə’ kjulə], pressure [‘pre∫ə], angle [‘æŋgl], closure [‘kləu3ə], emergency [im’ə:d3ənsi], coherence [k ’hiərəns], tomography [tə‘m grəfi], refraction [ri’fræk∫n], refractive [ri’fræktiv], inheritance [in’heritəns], laser [‘lezə], conventional [kən’ven∫ənl], ablation [æb’lei∫n], ciliary [‘siliəri], epithelium [,epi’θi:ljəm], drainage [‘dreinid3], implants [‘impl 
nts, ‘implænts]
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Make a report on glaocoma according to the plan below:
Definition: a disease in which the optic nerve is damaged, leading to progressive, irreversible loss of vision.
Classification: open-angle glaucoma and closed-angle glaucoma.
Open-angle glaucoma accounts for 90% of glaucoma cases in the United States.
Closed-angle glaucoma accounts for <10% of glaucoma cases in the United States
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: Open-angle glaucoma: painless and does not have acute attacks; the only signs: gradually progressive visual field loss, and optic nerve changes. Closed-angle glaucoma: sudden ocular pain, seeing halos around lights, red eye, very high intraocular pressure (>30 mmHg), nausea and vomiting, sudden decreased vision, and a fixed, mid-dilated pupil. Acute angle closure is an ocular emergency.
Diagnosis:a standard eye examination performed by ophthalmologists; measurements of the intraocular pressure via tonometry, angle examination or gonioscopy, and examination of the optic nerve to look for any visible damage to it; a formal visual field test; optical coherence tomography (OCT), scanning laser polarimetry (GDx), and/or scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. Examination for glaucoma also could be assessed with more attention given to sex, race, history of drug use, refraction, inheritance and family history, etc.
Management: medications: eye drops: various topical and systemic medications:
topical beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists, alpha2-adrenergic agonists, less-selective sympathomimetics, miotic agents, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors.
Surgery: Both laser and conventional surgeries are performed to treat glaucoma. Canaloplasty is a nonpenetrating procedure utilizing microcatheter technology.
Laser trabeculoplasty may be used to treat open angle glaucoma; during laser iridotomy, laser energy is used to make a small full-thickness opening in the iris. Diode laser cycloablation lowers IOP by reducing aqueous secretion by destroying secretory ciliary epithelium;
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The most common conventional surgery performed for glaucoma is the trabeculectomy. Here, a partial thickness flap is made in the scleral wall of the eye, and a window opening made under the flap to remove a portion of the trabecular meshwork.
Glaucoma drainage implants:several different glaucoma drainage implants: the original Molteno implant (1966), the Baerveldt tube shunt, or the valved implants, such as the Ahmed glaucoma valve implant or the ExPress Mini Shunt and the later generation pressure ridge Molteno implants.
MEDICAL HUMOR
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Patient to the eye doctor: "Whenever I drink coffee, I have this sharp, excruciating pain."
"Try to remember to remove the spoon from the cup before drinking."
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While my friend was working as a receptionist for an eye surgeon, a very angry woman stormed up to her desk. "Someone stole my wig while I was having surgery yesterday," she complained.
The doctor came out and tried to calm her down. "I assure you that no one on my staff would have done such a thing," he said. "Why do you think it was taken here?"
"After the operation, I noticed the wig I was wearing was cheap-looking and ugly."
"I think" explained the surgeon gently, "that means your cataract operation was a success."
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“Now that my wife has had laseк eye surgery she is insisting we move to some place with a better view.”
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Wife to her husband’s ophthalmosurgeon, “ Despite his laser eye surgery, he still doesn’t see the mess he leaves in the living room every day.”
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Why is an eye doctor like a teacher? - They both test the pupils.
THE SKIN
Phonetic exercise:Integumentary [in,tegjumentəri], epidermis [,epi’d :mis], dermis [’d :mis], hypodermis [,haipə’d :mis], components [kəm’pəunənts], sweat [swet], melanocytes [‘melənəsaits], dermatitis [,d :mə‘tatis], psoriasis [(p)sə‘raiəsis], eczema [ek’simə]
Make a report on the skin according to the plan below:
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Definition:the outer covering of the body.
Functions:protection; sensation; heat regulation; control of evaporation; aesthetics, communication; storage, synthesis; excretion; absorption; water resistance.
Structure: three primary layers: the epidermis, the dermis, the hypodermis.
The main components: sweat glands, blood vessels, melanocytes, and nerve endings.
The average square inch(6.5 sqare cm): 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, 1,000 nerve endings.
Size:the largest organ of the integumentary system; the surface area: 1.5-2.0 square meters; the thickness: 2–3 mm.
The most common diseases:different types of dermatitis, psoriasis, skin cancer, etc.
PSORIASIS
Phonetic execise:psoriasis [(p)sə‘raiəsis], epidermis [,epi’d :mis], dermis [’d :mis], hypodermis [,haipə’d :mis], dermatitis [,d :mə‘tatis], eczema [‘eksimə], relapsing [ri’læpsiŋ], contagious [kən’teid3əs], prevalence [‘prevələns], occurrence [ə’kΛrəns; ə’k :rəns], genetic [d3ə’netik, d3i’netik], environmental [in,vaiərən’mentl], chronic [kr nik], autoimmune [, :təui’mju:n], pustular [‘pΛstjulə], seborrheic [seb :’ri:ik], hypotheses [,hai’p θəsis], hereditary [hi’reditəri, hə’reditəri], biopsy [‘bai psi], target [‘t git], moisturizers [‘m ist∫əraizəz], plaques [pla:ks, plæks], analogue [‘ænəl g, ‘ænəl :g, ‘ænəl g],ultraviolet [,Λltrə‘vaiələt, ,Λltrə‘vaiəlit], alternative [ :l’tə:nətiv], vegetarian [,ved3i’təeriən], ichthyotherapy [,ikθi ’θerəpi]
Make a report on psoriasis according to the plan below:
Definition: a chronic, autoimmune disease that appears on the skin.
Epidemiology:Psoriasis affects both sexes equally and can occur at any age, although it most commonly appears for the first time between the ages of 15 and 25 years. The prevalence of psoriasis in Western populations is estimated to be around 2-3%.
Classification: nonpustular and pustular types.
Nonpustularpsoriasis: most common form of psoriasis. It affects 80 to 90% of people with psoriasis.
Pustular psoriasis: appears as raised bumps that are filled with non-infectious pus (pustules).
Additional types of psoriasis: drug-induced psoriasis, inverse psoriasis, napkin psoriasis, seborrheic-like psoriasis, guttate psoriasis, nail psoriasis, etc.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features:plaques.
Causes: The cause of psoriasis is not fully understood. Two main hypotheses: excessive growth and reproduction of skin cells; an immune-mediated disorder in which the excessive reproduction of skin cells is secondary to factors produced by the immune system.
Genetic factors:Psoriasis has a large hereditary component, and many genes are associated with it, but it is not clear how those genes work together.
Immunological factors: In psoriasis, immune cells move from the dermis to the epidermis, where they stimulate skin cells (keratinocytes) to proliferate.
Diagnosis:examination ofthe appearance of the skin; skin biopsy, or scraping, may be needed to rule out other disorders and to confirm the diagnosis.
Management: medications: new, highly effective targeted therapies, several monoclonal antibodies (MABs) target cytokines; cognitive behaviour therapy: psychological symptom management; topical treatment: bath solutions and moisturizers, mineral oil, petroleum jelly; medicated creams and ointments applied directly to psoriatic plaques; activated vitamin D and its analogues; phototherapy:ultraviolet light treatment; photochemotherapy; systemic treatment: medications that are taken internally by pill or injection: cyclosporine and retinoids; alternative therapy: changes in diet and lifestyle: fasting periods, low energy diets and vegetarian diets, diets rich in fatty acids from fish oil, lifestyle habits related to alcohol, smoking, weight, sleep, stress and exercise; climatotherapy: The Dead Sea is one of the most popular locations for this type of treatment; ichthyotherapy: doctor fish are encouraged to feed on the psoriatic skin of people with psoriasis. The fish, which live in outdoor pools, only consume the affected areas of the skin.
Atopic dermatitis
Phonetic execise:integumentary [in,tegjumentəri], epidermis [,epi’d :mis], dermis [’d :mis], hypodermis [,haipə’d :mis], components [kəm’pəunənts], sweat [swet], melanocytes [‘melənəsaits], dermatitis [,d :mə‘tatis], psoriasis [(p)sə‘raiəsis], eczema [‘eksimə], relapsing [ri’læpsiŋ], contagious [kən’teid3əs], pruritic [pruə‘ritik], oozing [‘u:ziŋ], prevalence [‘prevələns], occurrence [ə’kΛrəns; ə’k :rəns], genetic [d3ə’netik, d3i’netik], environmental [in,vaiərən’mentl], allergy [‘æləd3i], allergic [ə‘lə:d3ik], allergens [‘æləd3enz], atopic [ə’t pik], dander [‘dændə], moisturizers [‘m ist∫əraizəz], aqueous [‘eikwiəs], triple [‘tripl]
Make a report on atopic dermatitis according to the plan below:
Definition:a type of eczema; an inflammatory, chronically relapsing, non-contagious and pruritic skin disorder.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features:red, inflamed, and itchy rash, red to brownish-gray colored patches that are usually very itchy; itching that may become more intense during the night; small and raised bumps which may be crusting or oozing if scratched, which will also worsen the itch. The skin tends to be more sensitive and may thicken, crack or scale.
Epidemiolgy:The disease now affects 10-20% of children and 1-3% of adults in industrialized countries, and its prevalence in the United States alone has nearly tripled in the past thirty to forty years.
Risk factors (risk situations, risk groups: allergy; food allergy. genetic factors, Many common food allergens can trigger an allergic reaction: such as milk, nuts, cheese, tomatoes, wheat, yeast, soy, and corn. Many of these allergens are common ingredients in grocery store products (especially corn syrup, which is a sugar substitute).
Common food allergens: peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish, fish, milk, and egg.
Prevention:no cure for atopic eczema, treatment should mainly involve discovering the triggers of allergic reactions and learning to avoid them. Breastfeeding is the best way to avoid these problems, but if that is unavailable, then hydrolyzed formulas are preferred to cow's milk. The use of organic dairy products by children and breastfeeding or pregnant mothers reduces the risk of atopic dermatitis in young children
Environment and lifestyle:avoidance of smoking, avoidance of inhalation of dust in general. The dander from the fur of dogs and cats may also trigger an inflammatory response.
Evaluation: an allergy skin-patch or "scratch" test, given by an allergist, can often pinpoint the triggers of allergic reactions.
Treatment: avoiding or minimizing contact with known allergens; moisturizers, lotion containing sodium hyaluronate to improve skin dryness, aqueous cream, non-soap cleanser, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, UV radiation, etc.
Alternative treatments:Oil from oenothera, commonly known as Evening Primrose, can in some cases, alleviate the symptoms of eczema.
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Phonetic exercise:immune [i’mju:n], pathogens [‘pæθəud3ənz], thymus [‘θaiməs], phagocytes [‘fægəusaits], neutrophils [‘njutrəfilz], lymphocytes [‘limfəusaits], acquired [ə’kwaiəd], immune [i’mju:n] deficiency [di’fi∫ənsi], syndrome [‘sindrəum], psoriasis [(p)sə‘raiəsis], rheumatoid arthritis [‘rumət id a:’θraitis], diabetes [,daiə’bi:ti:z].
Make a report on the immune system according to the plan below:
Definition:a system of biological structures and processes within an organism.
Functions: first(ly),to detect a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasites; second(ly), to protect against diseases by identifying and killing pathogens and tumor cells.
Structure: The thymus: lymphocyte precursors become thymocytes, which in turn mature into T-cells.
The spleen: a filter for the blood. It catches foreign material in the blood and activates different types of immune system cells.
The lymph nodes:organs that filter foreign material from the lymph fluid.
The two basic types of leukocytes: phagocytes: cells that chew up invading organisms; neutrophils: cells that primarily fight bacteria; lymphocytes: cells that allow the body to remember and recognize previous invaders and help the body destroy them ; B-lymphocytes: to seek out invaders; T-lymphocytes: to destroy invaders.
The most common diseases:acquired immune deficiency syndrome, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, etc.
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