Questions and patterns for discussions on common diseases
What is the definition of the disease? What is the disease defined? What is the disease termed? What is the disease referred to?
The definition of the disease is… The disease is defined as… The disease is termed as…The disease is referred to as…
What is the classification of the disease? What types is the disease classified into? What kinds is the disease subdivided into?
The classification of the disease includes … The disease is classified into several types. They are… The disease is subdivided into several kinds. They are…
What are the main causes of the disease? What do the main causes of the disease include? What is the disease caused by? What is the disease triggered by? What is the disease induced by? What does the disease result from? What factors lead to the disease?
The main causes of the disease are… The main causes of the disease include… The disease is caused by… The disease is triggered by… The disease is induced by… The disease results from … Smoking and alcohol lead to the disease.
What are the main risk factors? What are the most common predisposing factors? What do the main risk factors include? What are the main risk situations? What are the main risk groups? Who is at high risk for the disease?
The main risk factors are… The main risk factors include… The most common predisposing factors are… The main risk situations are… The main risk groups are…Alcoholics, immunocompromised people, diabetics, AIDS patients are at high risk for the disease.
What is the morbidity rate of the disease? What is the mortality (death) rate of the disease? What is epidemiology of the disease? What is prevalenceof the disease?
What is frequencyof the disease?
The morbidity rate of the disease is 10 cases per 1,000 people. The morbidity rate of the disease is 1.2 deaths per 1,000 cases.
What are the most common symptoms, signs, clinical features, clinical manifestationsof the disease? What are the most common signs of the disease? What are the most common clinical features of the disease? What are the most common clinical manifestations of the disease? What symptoms do patients with the disease have? What symptoms do patients with the disease experience?
The most common symptoms of the disease are… The most common signs of the disease are… The most common clinical features of the disease are… The most common clinical manifestations of the disease are… Patients with this disease have (experience) the following symptoms…
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What does evaluation for the disease include? What does examination for the disease consist of? What does investigation for the disease involve? What does evaluation for the disease comprise?
Evaluation for the disease includes three main stages. Examination for the disease consists of three main steps. Investigation for the disease involves three main parts.
Evaluation for the disease comprises three main levels.
They are first(ly), history, second(ly), physical examination and third(ly), instrumental evaluation.
What does history include? What does history evaluation consist of?
History includes a personal medical history or a previous history, a history of the present illness, a history of presenting complaint, a childhood illness history, a past medical history, an allergic history, a family history, a pregnancy history, an obstetric history, a gynecological history, a medication or drug history, an immunization history, a psychiatric history, an occupational history, a social history, a surgical history, an environmental history, a sexual history, a diet history, etc.
What does physical examination include? What does physical evaluation consist of?
Physical evaluation includes observation, percussion, palpation, auscultation.
What does instrumental evaluation include?
Instrumental evaluation includes different blood tests, urinalysis, X-ray, MRI, ultrasound, ECG, echocardiography, laboratory tests, pulmonary function testing, audiograms, full body CAT scanning, heart stress tests, and mammograms or prostate exams depending on gender, etc.
What does treatment for the disease include? What does management for the disease consist of? How is the disease treated? What are the most common treatment methods for the disease? What are the most common treatment modalities for the disease?
Treatment for the disease includes…The most common treatment methods and modalities are…pharmacotherapy or drug therapy (antibiotics, sedatives, non-steroid anti-inflammatory medications, insulins, etc.), surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, vitamin therapy, phytotherapy or herbal therapy, hydrotherapy, blood transfusion, plasma transfusion, etc.
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What does preventionfor the disease include? How is the disease prevented? What does self-care include?
The most common prevention includes…avoidance of smoking, avoidance of alcohol, avoidance of sedentary life style, healthy diet low in fats, cholesterol and dietary sodium, exercises within tolerant levels…
What questions does the doctor ask the patients with this disease?
The doctor may ask different questions, for example,
Do you have a family history of this disease? Do (did) you parternal (marternal) relatives have this disease? Have you ever had… ? Have you ever been troubled, disturbed, bothered by …? Are you troubled, disturbed, bothered by … ? Are you being troubled, disturbed, bothered by … ? Are you having…. ? Do you often have … ? Has your doctor ever told you that you may have… ? Have you ever been told that you may have … ? What medications do you take? What medicines (pharmaceutical drugs, remedies) are you taking? Are you allergic to any drugs? Are you sensitive to any medications? What medications do you have allergies to? Have you ever been hospitalized for your disease? Have you ever been operated for your disease?
THE SKELETON
Phonetic exercise: skeleton [‘skelitn], skull [skʌl], cranium [‘kreiniəm], frontal [‘frʌntl], occipital [ɔk’sipitl], temporal [‘tempərəl], parietal [pə’raiitl], ethmoid [‘eθmɔid], lacrimal [‘lækriməl], zygomatic [,zaigə’mætik], mandible [‘mændibl], maxilla [mæk’silə], palatine [‘pælətain], vomer [‘voumə], vertebra [‘və:tibrə], vertebrae [‘və:tibri:], false [fɔ:ls], limbs [limz], extremities [iks’tremitiz], upper [‘ʌpə], lower [‘louə], forearm [‘fɔ:ra:m], wrist [rist], femur [‘fi:mə], tibia [‘tibiə], fibula [‘fibjulə], phalange [‘fælændʒ]
Make a report on the skeleton according to the plan below:
Definition:a rigid framework that provides structure as well as protection in humans.
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Function: to provide structure as well as protection in humans
Structure:around 206 bones.
The skull or the cranium: 22 bones: 1 frontal bone, or os frontale in Latin, 1 occipital bone, or os occipitale in Latin, 2 temporal bones or ossa temporalia in Latin, 2 parietal bones, or ossa parietalia in Latin, 1 ethmoid bone, or os ethmoidale in Latin, 2 nasal bones, or ossa nasalia in Latin, 2 lacrimal bones, or ossa lacrimalia in Latin, 2 zygomatic bones, or ossa zygomatica, 1 mandible, or low jaw bone, 2 maxilla bones, or upper jaw bones, 1 vomer, 2 palatine bones, etc.
Function: to protect the brain.
Vertebral column: 33 vertebrae, the sacrum, intervertebral discs, and the coccyx; 7 cervical vertebrae, or vertebrae cervicales in Latin, 12 thorasic vertebrae, or vertebrae thoracicae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, or vertebrae lumbales, 5 sacral vertebrae in small babies, or vertebrae sacrales, 3 to 5 separate or fused vertebrae (the coccygeal vertebrae) below the sacrum.
Function: to house and protect the spinal cord in its spinal canal.
Thorax, rib cage: the sternum, or the breastbone, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs: 7 pairs of true ribs, or costae verae in Latin, 3 pairs of false ribs, or costae spuriae in Latin, 2 pairs of floating ribs, or costae fluitantes in Latin.
Function: to protect the heart, the bronchi, the lungs, and the esophagus
2 upper limbs, or upper extremities:each upper limb: 1 shoulder, 1arm (the region between the shoulder and the elbow), 1 elbow, 1 forearm, 1 wrist, 1 hand.
Bones of the upper limb: 1 clavicle, or collarbone, 1 scapula, or shoulder blade, 1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges.
Fingers: a thumb, an index finger, a middle finger, a ring finger, and a little finger.
2 lower limbs: each lower limb: 1 femur (thighbone), 1 tibia (shinbone), and 1 fibula.
Each foot: 7 tarsal bones, 5 metatasal bones, 14 phalanges.
Pelvis: the greater pelvis (inferior part of the abdominal cavity) and the lesser or true pelvis which provides the skeletal framework for the pelvic cavity.
The main parts of the pelvis: the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis.
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Functions: to bear the weight of the upper body when sitting and standing; to contain and protect the pelvic and abdominopelvic inferior parts of the urinary tracts and internal reproductive organs.
The most common diseases: bone tumors, osteosarcoma, osteoarthritis, osteomyelitis, osteoporosis, osteodystrophy, etc.
JOINTS
Definition: the location at which two or more bones make contact.
Functions: first(ly), to allow movement, second(ly), to provide mechanical support.
Classification: articulations of hand, elbow joints, wrist joints, axillary articulations, sternoclavicular joints, vertebral articulations, temporomandibular joints, sacroiliac joints, hip joints, knee joints, articulations of foot
Common diseases: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, septic arthritis, gouty arthritis, etc.
CARTILAGES
Definition: a stiff and inflexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs.
Structure: specialized cells called chondrocytes.
Common diseases: chondrodystrophies, osteoarthritis, traumatic rupture, costochondritis, spinal disc herniation, benign and malignant tumors, polychondritis, etc.
TENDONS
Definition: a tough band of fibrous connective tissue.
Function: to connect muscles to bones.
Common diseases: different kinds of tendonopathies.
LIGAMENTS
Definitions: articular ligaments: fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones. Peritoneal ligaments: a fold of peritoneum or other membranes.
Types of ligaments: knee ligaments, head and neck ligaments, pelvic ligaments, and thoracic ligaments.
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
Phonetic exercise: rheumatoid [’ru:m 
t 
Id], arthritis [’ 
θraitis], chronic [‘kr nik], inflammatory [in’flæmətəri], disorder [dis’ :də], autoimmunity [, təui’mju:niti], autoimmune [, təui’mju:n], pleura ['pljuərə], sclera [‘skliərə], characterized [‘kærəktəraizd], evaluation [i,vælju’ei∫n]], epidemiology [‘epi,di:mi’ ləd3i]
Make a report on rheumatoid arthritis according to the plan below:
Definition: a chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder that may affect many tissues and organs, but principally attacks synovial joints; a form of autoimmunity.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: joint pains, morning stiffness, radiological changes, joint inflammation, joint swellings, diffuse inflammation in the lungs, pericardium, pleura, and sclera, etc.
Epidemiology: about 1% of the world's population; 3 cases per 10,000 population; Onset: most frequent between the ages of 40 and 50.
Risk groups: women three times more often than men; 4 times more common in smokers than non-smokers.
Causes:still incompletely known.
Evaluation: history:a personal medical history, a family history, a medication history, an occupational history, a professional history, an inveronmental history, a surgical history, a social history, etc.
Physical examination: observation and palpation.
Instrumental evaluation: blood tests (especially a test called rheumatoid factor) and X-rays.
Diagnostic criteria:
· Morning stiffness of >(more than) 1 hour, most mornings for at least 6 weeks.
· Arthritis and soft-tissue swelling of > (more than) 3 of 14 joints/joint groups, present for at least 6 weeks
· Arthritis of hand joints, present for at least 6 weeks
· Symmetric arthritis, present for at least 6 weeks
· Subcutaneous nodules in specific places
· Rheumatoid factor at a level above the 95th percentile
· Radiological changes suggestive of joint erosion
Treatment: non-pharmacological treatment: physical therapy, occupational therapy and nutritional therapy, special tools to improve hard movements (e.g. special tin-openers, pens, pencils); pharmaceutical treatment: painkillers), anti-inflammatory drugs, (steroids), disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), joint injections, etc.
Osteoarthritis
Phonetic exercise:osteoarthritis[, stiə’ θraitis], degenerative [di’d3enəreitiv], arthritis [’a:θraitis], abnormalities [,æbn :’mæliti], congenital [kən’d3entl], diabetes [,daiə’bi:ti:z], atrophy [‘ætrəfi], injury [‘ind3əri], impairment [im’pεəmənt], analgesics [,ænəl’d3i:siks], characterized [‘kærəktəraizd], evaluation [i,vælju’ei∫n], epidemiology [‘epi,di:mi’ ləd3i]
Make a report on osteoarthritis according to the plan below:
Definition: degenerative joint disease, a group of mechanical abnormalities involving degradation of joints.
Epidemiology: 27 million people in the United States; 735,000 hospitalizations for OA in the USA; 8 million people in the United Kingdom.
Causes and risk factors:mechanical stress, loss of strength in muscles and supporting joints, impairment of peripheral nerves, congenital disorders of joints, pathogenic factors, diabetes, overweight, obesity, injury to joints, aging, etc. Genetic factors: up to 60% of OA cases.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: acute pain, sharp aches, loss of ability, stiffness, tenderness, a burning sensation in the muscles and tendons, a crackling noise, muscle spasms, regional muscular atrophy, etc.
Commonly affected joints: the hands, feet, spine, and fingers.
Evaluation: history:a personal medical history, a family history, a medication history, an occupational history, a social history, a surgical history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, palpation, persussion, and auscultation.
Instrumental evaluation: X-ray.
Treatment: weight loss, physical therapy, exercises, analgesics, acetaminophen / paracetamol, vitamin A, C, and E, omega-3 fatty acids, joint replacement, etc.
MEDICAL HUMOR
Boneheads – orthopaedics. Overpriced carpenter- orthopaedic doctor
Dr. Chicken Bones - medical slang for Chiroprators that take a little different approach to treating their clients. Some times they practice without a license and only deal in cash or trade.
Does it hurt when you go to that Dr. Chicken Bones?
Sometimes...but afterwards it does make my back feel better
MUSCLES
Phonetic exercise:muscles [‘mʌslz], muscular [‘mʌskjulə], contractile [kən’træktail], tissue [‘tisju:], skeletal [‘skelitəl], smooth [smu:ð], cardiac [‘ka:diæk], involuntary [in’vɔləntəri], striated [strai’eitid], average [‘ævəridʒ], conscious [‘kɔnʃəs], control [kən’troul]
Make a report on muscles according to the plan below:
Definition:contractile tissue of animals and humans.
Groups of muscles: head muscles, neck muscles, intraocular muscles, ear muscles, nose muscles, mouth muscles, tongue muscles, vertebral muscles, back muscles, chest muscles, abdominal muscles, pelvic muscles, muscles of upper extremities, muscles of lower extremities, shoulder muscles, hand muscles, thigh muscles, leg muscles, etc.
Function: to produce force and cause motion.
Types of muscles: first(ly), skeletal muscles, second(ly), smooth muscles, and third(ly) cardiac muscles;
Skeletal muscles: "voluntary muscle", anchored by tendons to bones, striated muscles; 639 skeletal muscles.
Function: to effect skeletal movements.
Smooth muscles: "involuntary” muscles, are not under conscious control.
Location: within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, blood vessels, etc.
Cardiac muscle: an "involuntary muscle", a striated muscle.
Location: only in the heart.
Common diseases: cerebrovascular accident (stroke), Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, polymyositis, dermatomyositis, etc.
POLYMYOSITIS
Phonetic exercise:chronic [‘kr nik], inflammatory [in’flæmətəri], myopathy [mai’ pəθi], early [‘ə:li], fatigue [fə‘ti:g], autoimmune [, təui’mju:n], kinase [’kineis], electromyography [,ilektro‘maiogrəfi], biopsy [‘baiəpsi], characterized [‘kærəktəraizd], evaluation [i,vælju’ei∫n], epidemiology [‘epi,di:mi’ ləd3i]
Make a report on polymyositis according to the plan below:
Definition: a type of chronic inflammatory myopathy, 'many muscle’ inflammation.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: bilateral proximal muscle weakness often noted in the upper legs, early fatigue while walking, progressive weakness, etc.
Risk groups: The disease strikes females with greater frequency than males.
Causes: unknown; possible causes: autoimmune factors, genetics, and perhaps viruses.
Evaluation:
History:a personal medical history, a family history, a medication history, an occupational history, an environmental history, a surgical history, etc.
Physical examination: observation and palpation.
Instrumental evaluation: creatine kinase, electromyography, and muscle biopsy, etc.
Treatment: high-dose steroids, specialized exercise therapy, etc.
Myasthenia gravis
Phonetic exercise:myasthenia [,maiæs’θi:niə], evaluation [i,vælju’ei∫n], fatigue [fə‘ti:g], facial [‘fei∫əl], control [kən’troul], limb [lim], swallowing [‘sw ləuiŋ], noticeabl [‘nəutisəbl], upward [‘Λpwəd], spirometry [,spaiə‘r mitri]
Make a report on myasthenia gravis according to the plan below:
Definition: an autoimmune neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and fatiguability.
Affected organs: eye muscles, eyelid muscles, facial muscles, muscles that control breathing, neck muscles, limb muscles, etc.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: fatiguability, the most noticeable symptoms: weakness of the eye muscles, difficulty in swallowing, slurred, drooping of one or both eyelids; other symptoms: double vision, unstable or waddling gait, weakness in arms, hands, fingers, legs, and neck, a change in facial expression, etc.
Evaluation:
Physical examination:
· looking upward and sidewards for 30 seconds: ptosis and diplopia.
· looking at the feet while lying on the back for 60 seconds
· keeping the arms stretched forward for 60 seconds
· 10 deep knee bends
· walking 30 steps on both the toes and the heels
· 5 situps, lying down and sitting up completely
Instrumental evaluation: blood tests, X-ray, CT, MRI, pulmonary function tests, spirometry, muscle biopsy, etc.
Treatment:medications: acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and immunosuppressive drugs; plasmapheresis and intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG), surgery: thymectomy, etc.
MEDICAL HUMOR
So this man was helping his best friend move to a new house. He groaned as he helped a large couch. “Look,” his friend said helpfully, “at least you are developing your muscles.”
“Yeah,” replied the friend, wryly, “either that or a hernia.”
THE HEART
Phonetic exercise:heart [ha:t], pear [pεə], muscular [‘m 
skjulə], pump [p mp], organ [‘ :gən], blood [bl d], vessels [‘veslz], repeated [ri’pi:tid], rhythmic [‘riðmik], contractions [kən’træk∫nz], thorax [‘θ :r 
ks], surrounded [s ’raundid], breastbone [‘brestboun], cardiac [‘k diæk], involuntary muscles [in’v ləntəri ‘mΛslz], pericardium [,peri’k diəm], endocardium [,endə’k diəm], myocardium [,maiə’k diəm], chamber [‘t∫eimbə], chambers [‘t∫eimbəz], upper atria [‘Λpə ‘eitriə], lower ventricles [‘ləuə ‘ventriklz], mitral valve [‘maitrəl ‘vælv], tricuspid valve [trai’kΛspid ‘vælv], semilunar valve [,semi’lu:nə ‘vælv], aorta [ei’ :tə], pulmonary artery [‘pΛlmənəri ‘a:təri], females [‘fi:meilz], males [meilz], beats per minute [‘bi:ts ‘p :‘minit], bradycardia [,brædi’k diə], tachycardia [,tæki’ka:diə], circulation [,s :kju’lei∫n], oxygenated blood [‘ ksid3ineitid ‘bl d], deoxygenated blood [di:’ ksid3ineitid ‘bl d], endocarditis [,endoka:’daitis], pericarditis [,perika:’daitis], myocarditis [,maiəka:’daitis], myocardial infarction [,maiə’ka:diəl in’fa:k∫n]; congestive heart failure [kən’d3estiv ‘ha:t ‘feiljə], angina pectoris [æn’d3ainə ‘pektəris], atrial fibrillation [‘eitriəl ,faibri’lei∫n]
Make a report on the heart according to the plan below:
Definition: a pear shaped, muscular organ.
Function:to pump blood through the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions.
Location:to the left of the middle of the thorax; surrounded by the lungs, protected by the thorax: the breastbone and ribs.
Structure:cardiac muscle: striped and involuntary;
the pericardium, the endocardium, the myocardium;
four chambers: the two upper atria and the two lower ventricles;
four valves: the mitral valve, the tricuspid valve, the semi-lunar valve of the aorta, and the semi-lunar valve of the pulmonary artery.
Size and/or weight or volume:about three fourths the size of a clenched fist;
250 g in females and 350 g in males; the abnormal heart: up to 1,000 g
Physiology:the normal heart beat: 70 bpm in males and 75 bpm in females;
bradycardia: if less than 60 bpm; tachycardia: if greater than 100 bpm.
120 times (beats) per minute in childhood;
Two types of circulation: the systemic circulation and the pulmonary circulation.
Deoxygenated blood: from the right atrium to the right ventricle, from the right ventricle to the lungs.
Oxygenated blood: from the lungs to the left atrium, from the left atrium to the left ventricle, from the left ventricle to all tissues.
The most common diseases:endocarditis, pericarditis, myocarditis, myocardial infarction (MI), congestive heart failure (CHF), angina pectoris, atrial fibrillation, congenital heart defects, acquired heart defects, valvular heart disease, etc.
Myocardial infarction
Phonetic exercise:heart [h t], attack [ə’tæk], pericarditis [,perik ’daitis], myocarditis [,maiək ’daitis], myocardial infarction [,maiə’k diəl in’f k∫n]; congestive heart failure [kən’d3estiv ‘h t ‘feiljə], angina pectoris [æn’d3ainə ‘pektəris], atrial fibrillation [‘eitriəl ,faibri’lei∫n], interruption [,intə’rΛp∫n], supply [sə‘plai], cholesterol [kə‘lestr l], pressure [‘pre∫ə], ischaemic [is’ki:mik], ischemia [is’ki:miə], obesity [əu’bi:səti], evaluation [i,vælju’ei∫n], cessation [ses’ei∫n], saturated [‘sæt∫əreitid], statin [‘stætin], characterized [‘kærəktəraizd], epidemiology [‘epi,di:mi’ ləd3i]
Make a report on myocardial infarction according to the plan below:
Definition: a heart attack, the interruption of blood supply to part of the heart, causing heart cells to die.
Epidemiology:12.6 percent of worldwide deaths from ischemic heart disease.
Risk factors:diabetes, tobacco smoking, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, family history of ischaemic heart disease (IHD), obesity, age, stresses, alcohol, etc. Males are more at risk than females.
Symptoms: sudden chest pain, pain typically radiating to the left arm or left side of the neck, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, palpitations, sweating, and anxiety; silent infarction: 10-25%.
Evaluation: History:a personal medical history, a family history, a medication history, an occupational history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, palpation, percussion, and auscultation
Instrumental evaluation: electrocardiography, coronary angiography
Treatment:oxygen, aspirin, and nitroglycerin, bypass surgery.
Prevention: strict blood pressure management, lifestyle changes: smoking cessation, regular exercise, a sensible diet for patients with heart disease, polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats and limitation of alcohol intake, antiplatelet drug therapy such as aspirin and/or clopidogrel, beta blocker therapy, statin therapy, ACE inhibitors, omega-3 fatty acids.
HYPERTENSION
Phonetic exercise: blood [blΛd], pressure [‘pre∫ə], chronic [‘kr nik], heart failure [‘h t ‘feiljə], stroke [str uk], transient [‘trænziənt], ischemic [is’ki:mik], hypertension [,haipə’ten∫n], hypertensive [,haipə’tensive], primary [‘praiməri], secondary [‘sekəndəri], renal failure [‘ri:nl ‘feiljə], attack [ə’tæk], cardiomyopathy [,k di mai’ pəθi], previous [‘pri:viəs], measurement [‘me3əmənt], environmental [in,vaiərən’məntl]
Make a report on high blood pressure according to the plan below:
Definition: a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is elevated.
Epidemiology: nearly one billion people or ~ (approximately) 26% of the adult population have hypertension worldwide.
Classification: primary hypertension (95%), secondary hypertension (5%).
Causes of primary hypertension: no medical causes
Causes and risk factors of secondary hypertension: conditions that affect the kidneys, arteries, heart, or endocrine system; a body mass index greater than 25 salt (sodium) sensitivity, alcohol intake, vitamin D deficiency, aging, some inherited genetic mutations, a family history of hypertension, an elevation of renin, a hormone secreted by the kidney, etc.
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