Structure: the upper gastrointestinal tract and the lower gastrointestinal tract
The upper gastrointestinal tract:
the mouth (the cavity; the salivary glands, mucosa, the teeth and the tongue), the pharynx, the esophagus, and the stomach.
The stomach: a bean-shaped hollow muscular organ; is involved in the second phase of digestion; has a highly acidic environment; produces and secretes about 2 to 3 liters of gastric acid per day.
The lower gastrointestinal tract: first(ly), the small intestine and second(ly), the large intestine.
The small intestine: the duodenum, the jejunum, the ileum
The large intestine: the caecum, the colon (ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and sigmoid colon), the rectum, and the anus.
Length: approximately 7.5 meters (25 feet).
The most common diseases: esophagitis, esophagus cancer, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease (PUD), stomach perforation, stomach cancer, gastroenteritis, enteritis, duodenitis, colitis, colon cancer, proctitis, rectum cancer.
GASTRITIS
Phonetic exercise:stomach [stΛmək], digestion [di’d3est∫ən], gastritis [gæs’traitis], ulcer disease [‘Λlsə ‘di’zi:z], proctitis [pr 
k’taitis], Helicobacter pylori [,hɛlɨkə’bæktər pɪˈlɔraɪ], consumption [kən’sΛmp∫n], steroid [‘ster id], severe [si‘viə], traumatic [tr :’mætik], bacteria [bæk’tiəriə], autoimmune [, :t 
im’ju:n], appetite [‘æpitait], nausea [‘n :siə], abdomen [‘æbdəmen], abdominal [æb’d minl], pancreas [‘pæŋkriəs; ‘pæŋkriæs; ‘pænkriəs], bile [bail], reflux [‘ri:flΛks], antacids [,æn’tæsid], antibiotic [,æntibai’ tik]
Make a report on gastritis according to the plan below:
Definition: an inflammation of the lining of the stomach.
Causes: excessive alcohol consumption, prolonged use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin or ibuprofen, major surgery, traumatic injury, burns, severe infections, weight loss surgery resulting in infection with bacteria, primarily Helicobacter pylori, certain diseases, such as chronic bile reflux, stress and certain autoimmune disorders.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: upper central abdominal pain, dull pain, vague pain, burning pain, sharp pain; other signs and symptoms: nausea, clear, green or yellow, blood-streaked, or completely bloody vomiting, bloating, feeling full after only a few bites of food, loss of appetite, unexplained weight loss, etc.
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Evaluation:
History: a personal medical history or a previous history, a history of the present illness, a history of presenting complaint, a childhood illness history, a past medical history, a family history, a pregnancy history, a medication or drug history, an occupational history, a social history, a surgical history, an environmental history, a diet history, etc.
Physical evaluation: observation, percussion, palpation, and auscultation.
Instrumental examination: blood tests: blood cell count, tests for presence of H. pylori, pregnancy, liver, kidney, gallbladder, or pancreas functions; urinalysis, stool sample to look for blood in the stool; X-rays, ECGs, endoscopy to check for stomach lining inflammation and mucous erosion, stomach biopsy to test for gastritis and other conditions.
Treatment: over-the-counter antacids in liquid or tablet for mild gastritis; antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors, cytoprotective agents, bismuth subsalicylate, etc.
PEPTIC ULCER DISEASE
Phonetic exercise:ulcer disease [‘Λlsə ‘di’zi:z], gastrointestinal tract [,gæstrəuin’testinl ‘trækt], stomach [stΛmək], prevalence [‘prevələns], occurrence [ə’kΛrəns; ə’k 
:rəns], Helicobacter pylori [ˌhɛlɨkəˈbæktər pɪˈlɔraɪ], esophagus [i:’s :fəgəs], duodenum [,djuo’di:nəm], gnawing [‘n :iŋ], erosions [i’rəu3ənz], peritonitis [,peritəu’naitis], antacids [,æn’tæsid], antibiotic [,æntibai’ tik], pancreas [‘pæŋkriəs; ‘pæŋkriæs; ‘pænkriəs], hemorrhage [‘hemərid3], biopsy [‘baiəpsi], reflux [‘ri:flΛks], species [‘spi:∫iz], tarry [‘tæri], feces [‘fi:si:z], perforation [,pə:fə’rei∫n], penetration [,peni’trei∫n]
Make a report on peptic ulcer disease according to the plan below:
Definition: an ulcer (defined as mucosal erosions equal to or greater than 0.5 cm) of an area of the gastrointestinal tract that is usually acidic and thus extremely painful.
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Epidemiology: the lifetime risk for developing a peptic ulcer: approximately 10%.
In the United States about 4 million people have active peptic ulcers and about 350,000 new cases are diagnosed each year. Approximately 3,000 deaths per year in the United States are due to duodenal ulcer and 3,000 to gastric ulcer.
Causes:70-90% of ulcers are associated with Helicobacter pylori, a spiral-shaped bacterium that lives in the acidic environment of the stomach: ulcers can also be caused or worsened by drugs such as aspirin and other non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); about 4% of stomach ulcers are caused by a malignant tumor.
Classification:stomach ulcer (called gastric ulcer), duodenum ulcer (called duodenal ulcer), oesophagus ulcer (called oesophageal ulcer).
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: abdominal pain, classically epigastric pain with severity relating to mealtimes, bloating and abdominal fullness, nausea, vomiting, burning or gnawing feeling, loss of appetite, weight loss, vomiting of blood, tarry feces, rarely a gastric or duodenal perforation, which leads to acute peritonitis. This is extremely painful and requires immediate surgery.
Evaluation:
History:a personal medical history: a history of heartburn, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), a medication history, a history of use of certain forms of medications such as NSAID (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs).
Physical examination: observation, percussion, and palpation.
Instrumental evaluation: urea breath test, biopsy, measurement of antibody levels in blood, stool antigen tests, histological examination of biopsy, etc.
Complications:gastrointestinal bleeding, perforation that leads to acute peritonitis, penetration into adjacent organs such as the liver and pancreas, scarring and swelling, duodenal and gastric obstruction, etc.
Treatment: antacids, antibiotics, bismuth compounds, surgical repair of the perforation, endoscopy urgently to stop bleeding, etc.
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THE LIVER
Phonetic exercise:liver [‘livə], largest [‘l 
d3ist], [‘l d3əst], glandular [‘glændjulə], detoxification [,di:t ksifi’kei∫n], glycogen storage [‘glaikəud3ən ‘sto:rid3], glycogen [‘glikəud3en], plasma protein synthesis [‘plæmə ‘proutiin ‘sinθəsis], bile production [bail prə’dΛk∫n], diaphragm [‘daiəfræm], upper abdomen [‘Λpə ‘æbdəmen], triangular [,trai’æŋgjulə], lobes [loubz], visceral peritoneum [‘visərəl ,peritəu’ni:əm], membrane [‘membrein], hepatocytes [‘hepətəsaits], hepatitis [,hepə‘taitis], cirrhosis [si’rousis]
Make a report on the liver according to the plan below:
Definition:the largest glandular organ, a soft reddish brown triangular organ.
Functions: first(ly), drug detoxification, second(ly), glycogen storage, third(ly), plasma protein synthesis, fourth(ly), bile production.
Location: under the diaphragm on the right side of the upper abdomen.
Structure: 4 lobes; 8 segments; covered by visceral peritoneum;
the peritoneum: a thin, double-layered membrane that reduces friction against other organs; major cells: hepatocytes
Size and weight: the second largest organ; the largest gland in the human body; 1.4 and 1.6 kilograms; the abnormal liver: 16-20 kg
The most common diseases: hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cirrhosis, liver cancer, etc.
LIVER CIRRHOSIS
Phonetic exercise: cirrhosis [sɪˈroʊsɪs], liver [‘livə], consequence [‘k nsikwəns], chronic [‘kr nik], fibrosis [fai’broʊsis], process [‘proʊsəs], hepatitis [,hepə‘taitis], damage [‘dæmid3], toxins [‘t :ksinz], acute [ə‘kju:t], cyanosis [,saiə’n 
usis], pressure [‘pre∫ə], hypertension [,haipə’ten∫n], inflammation [,inflə’mei∫n], characterized [‘kæktəraizd], ascites [ə’saiti:z], tissue [’tisju:, ’ti∫ju:], virus [‘vaiərəs], viral [‘vaiərəl], asymptomatic [ə,simptə‚mætik], scar [‘sk ], alcohol [‘ælkə‘h l], alcoholic [,ælkə‘h lik], malaise [mə‘leiz, mæ‘leiz], nausea [‘n :siə], abdomen [‘æbdəmen], abdominal [æb’d minl], diarrhea [‚daiə‘riə, ‚daiə‘ri:ə], jaundice [‘d3 :ndis], discomfort [dis‘kΛfət], diet [daiət], ultrasound [‘Λltrəsaund]
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Make a report on liver cirrhosis according to the plan below:
Definition: consequence of chronic liver disease characterized by replacement of liver tissue by fibrosis, scar tissue and regenerative nodules.
Causes: alcoholism, hepatitis B and C, fatty liver disease, hepatotoxic drugs or toxins etc.
Epidemiology: the 10th leading cause of death for men and the 12th for women in the United States.
Complications: ascites (fluid retention in the abdominal cavity), hepatic encephalopathy (confusion and coma), hepatocellular carcinoma, portal hypertension, immune system dysfunction, leading to infection.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: enlarged or shrunken liver, splenomegaly (increase in size of the spleen), ascites (accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity), jaundice (yellow discoloring of the skin and eyes); other symptoms: weakness, fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, bruising and bleeding, itching, etc.
Evaluation:
History:a personal medical history, a medication history, a family history, an alcohol consumption history, an infectious disease history, a social history, an occupational history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, percussion, and palpation.
Instrumental evaluation: liver biopsy, laboratory blood tests, ultrasound, etc.
Treatment: cannot be reversed; a healthy diet, antibiotics, laxatives; avoidance of alcohol and paracetomol; vaccination of susceptible patients for Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B; diuretics to suppress ascites; propranolol to lower blood pressure over the portal system; liver transplantation, etc.
LIVER CANCER
Phonetic exercise:cirrhosis [sɪˈroʊsɪs], liver [‘livə], cancer [‘kænsə], carcinoma [,k si‘noumə], consequence [‘k nsikwəns], chronic [‘kr nik], fibrosis [fai’broʊsis], process [‘proʊsəs], hepatitis [,hepə‘taitis], damage [‘dæmid3], metastases [mi‘tæstəesi:z], nausea [‘n :siə], cyanosis [,saiə’n usis], pressure [‘pre∫ə], hypertension [,haipə’ten∫n], inflammatimon [,inflə’mei∫n], characterized [‘kæktəraizd], ascites [ə’saiti:z], tissue [’tisju:, ’ti∫ju:], virus [‘vaiərəs], viral [‘vaiərəl], asymptomatic [ə,simptə‚mætik], scar [‘sk ], alcohol [‘ælkə‘h l], alcoholic [,ælkə‘h lik], malaise [mə‘leiz, mæ‘leiz], nausea [‘n :siə], abdomen [‘æbdəmen], abdominal [æb’d minl], diarrhea [‚daiə‘riə, ‚daiə‘ri:ə], jaundice [‘d3 :ndis], discomfort [dis‘kΛfət], diet [daiət], ultrasound [‘Λltrəsaund], cadaveric [kə‘dævərik], infectious [in‘fek∫əs], methods [‘meθədz], prostate [‘pr steit], techniques [tek’ni:ks], modality [məu’dæləti], auscultation [, :skəl’tei∫n], percussion [pə’kΛ∫n; pə:’kΛ∫n], palpation [pæl’pei∫n]
Make a report on liver cancer according to the plan below:
Definition: a cancer which starts in the liver, as opposed to a cancer which originates in another organ and migrates to the liver, known as a liver metastasis.
The most frequent forms: hepatocellular carcinoma; metastases from other tumors, frequently from tumors of the GI tract (like colon cancer) but also from breast cancer, ovarian cancer, lung cancer, renal cancer, prostate cancer, etc.
The main risk factors, risk situations, risk groups for hepatocellular carcinoma: alcoholism, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Aflatoxins (naturally occurring mycotoxins), cirrhosis of the liver, Wilsons disease (a genetic disorder in which copper accumulates in tissues), anabolic steroids,
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: abdominal mass, abdominal pain, nausea,vomiting, anemia, back pain, jaundice, itching, weight loss, fever, an enlarged liver, some other liver dysfunction, etc.
Evaluation: History:a personal medical history, a medication history, a family history, an alcohol consumption history, an infectious disease history, a social history, an occupational history, a history of toxins, etc.
Physical examination: observation, percussion, and palpation.
Instrumental evaluation: CT scanning of the abdomen, MRI studies, etc.
Treatment: surgical resection to remove a tumor together with surrounding liver tissue; liver transplantation to replace the diseased liver with a cadaveric liver or a living donor graft; selective internal radiation therapy; hormonal therapy; cryosurgery: a new technique that can destroy tumors in a variety of sites (brain, breast, kidney, prostate, liver), etc.
MEDICAL HUMOR: MEDICAL SLANG
Liver bomb - medical slang for a patient with liver failure with tendency to explode from complications thereof, including GI bleeding, ascites, kidney failure, lung failure, and altered mentation.
I had the worst call of my life! I admitted 4 liver bombs and sent three to the ICU!
THE GALLBLADDER
Phonetic exercise:gallbladder [‘g :l‘blædə], non-vital [,n n’vaitl], hollow [‘h lou] , release [ri’li:s], concavity [k n’kæviti], fundus [‘fΛndəs], diameter [dai’æmitə], store [st :], gallstones [‘g :lstounz], cholelithiasis [,k lili’θaiəsis], cholecystitis [,k lisis’taitis]
Make a report on the gallbladder according to the plan below:
Definition:a small non-vital organ; a hollow organ.
Functions: first(ly),to store bile produced in the liver; second(ly), to release bile when food containing fat enters the digestive tract.
Location: in a concavity of the liver.
Structure: three sections: the fundus, the body, and neck
Size and volume:8 cm in length and 4 cm in diameter; stores about 50 milliliters of bile.
The most common diseases: gallstones (cholelithiasis), cholecystitis, gallbladder cancer.
CHOLECYSTITIS
Phonetic exercise:gallbladder [‘g :l‘blædə], gallstones [‘g :lstounz], cholelithiasis [,k li’li’θaiəsis], cholecystitis [,k lisis’taitis], choleliths [,k li’li’θs], consequence [‘k nsikwəns], duct [dΛkt], necrosis [nek’rəusis], rupture [‘rΛpt∫ə], surrounding [sə‘raʊndiŋ], obstruction [əbs‘trΛk∫n], gastrointestinal tract [,gæstrəuin’testinl ‘trækt], quadrant [‘kw drənt], scapula [‘skæpjələ], diaphragm [‘daiəfræm], fistula [‘fistjulə], nausea [‘n :siə], procedures [prəu‘si:d3əz], laparoscopy [,læpə‘r skəpi], bile [bail], biliary [‘biliəri], injury [‘ind3əri], abscess [’æbsəs], wound [wu:nd], hernia [‘hə:niə]
Make a report on cholecystitis according to the plan below:
Definition:inflammation of the gall bladder.
Causes and pathology: cholelithiasis (the presence of choleliths, or gallstones, in the gallbladder), with choleliths most commonly blocking the cystic duct directly.
The gallbladder's wall becomes inflamed.
Consequences and complications: necrosis and rupture, irritation of surrounding structures such as the diaphragm and bowel; perforation and formation of a fistula with the nearby small bowel, leading to symptoms of intestinal obstruction.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: pains in the right upper quadrant; constant, severe pains, pains 'referring' to the right flank or right scapular region at first, pains after eating greasy or fatty foods such as pastries, pies and fried foods; a low grade fever, vomiting and nausea, belching, etc.
Evaluation: History:a personal medical history, a medication history, a family history, an alcohol consumption history, an infectious disease history, a social history, an occupational history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, percussion, and palpation.
Instrumental evaluation: common blood count, blood tests for elevated bilirubin, C-reactive protein tests; radiology: sonography, CT, etc.
Treatment: fluid resuscitation and antibiotics, surgical removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy), open surgery or a laparoscopic procedure, etc.
Advantages of laparoscopic procedures: less morbidity and a shorter recovery stay. A laparoscopic procedure may also be 'converted' to an open procedure during the operation if the surgeon feels that further attempts at laparoscopic removal might harm the patient.
Complications of cholecystectomy:bile leak, bile duct injury (about 5-7 out of 1000 operations), abscess, wound infection, bleeding (liver surface and cystic artery are most common sites), hernia, organ injury (intestine and liver are at highest risk, especially if the gallbladder has become adherent/scarred to other organs due to inflammation (e.g. transverse colon), deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism, etc.
GALLSTONES
Phonetic exercise:crystalline [‘kristəlain], abnormal [æb’n :məl], components [kəm’pəunənts], accretion [ə’kri:∫n], concretion [kə’kri:∫n], biliary [’biliəri], inherited [in’heritid], attack [ə’tæk], motility [m ‘tiliti], diet [daiət], obstruction [əbs‘trΛk∫n], components [kəm’poʊnənts], nausea [‘n :siə], indigestion [,indi‘d3est∫n], percussion [pə’kΛ∫n; pə:’kΛ∫n], palpation [pæl’pei∫n], imaging [‘imid3iŋ], techniques [tek’ni:ks], cholangiography [,k lənd3ai’ græfi], sonography [,səu‘n græfi], ultrasound [,Λltrə‘saund], resuscitation [ri,sΛsi‘tei∫n], procedures [prəu‘si:d3əz], laparoscopy [,læpə‘r skəpi], bile [bail], lithotripsy [‘liθ ,tripsi], cholecystectomy [,k lisis’tektəmi], incision [in’si3n], puncture [‘pΛnkt∫ə]
Make a report on gallstones according to the plan below:
Definition:the presence of stones in the gallbladder or bile ducts, crystalline bodies formed within the body by accretion (growth) or concretion of normal or abnormal bile components.
Size: as small as a sand grain or as large as a golf ball.
Location: in any part of the biliary system.
Causes: a combination of factors, including inherited body chemistry, body weight, gallbladder motility (movement), and perhaps diet.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: asymptomatic initially, “silent stones”; a gallstone "attack", also known as biliary colic: intense pain in the upper abdominal region that steadily increases for approximately thirty minutes to several hours; pain in the back, ordinarily between the shoulder blades, or pain under the right shoulder; pain in the lower region of the abdomen, nearer to the pelvis; sharp and intensely painful attacks are, similar to that of a kidney stone attack; nausea and vomiting, abdominal bloating, intolerance of fatty foods, belching, gas, and indigestion.
Evaluation: History:a personal medical history, a medication history, a family history, an alcohol consumption history, an infectious disease history, a social history, an occupational history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, percussion, palpation, and auscultation.
Instrumental evaluation: non-invasive imaging techniques, an abdominal ultrasound that shows the ultrasonic shadows of the stones in the gallbladder; liver function blood tests; cholangiography.
Treatment: medications; lithotripsy for a small number of gallstones; cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal) (a 99% chance of eliminating the recurrence of cholelithiasis).
Two surgical options for cholecystectomy: open cholecystectomy: via an incision into the abdomen (laparotomy) below the right lower ribs; laparoscopic cholecystectomy: via three to four small puncture holes for a camera and instruments.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Phonetic exercise:endocrine [‘end ukrain; ‘end ukrin; ‘end ukri:n], exocrine [‘eksəukrain; ‘eksəukrin]; control [kən’tr ul], pancreas [‘pæŋkriəs; ‘pæŋkriæs; ‘pænkriəs], enzymes [‘enzaimz], hormones [’h :məunz], insulin [‘insjəlin; ‘insjulin], hypothalamus [,haipəu’θæləməs], pituitary [pi’tju:itəri], pineal [‘pi:niəl; pai’ni:əl], thyroid [‘θair id], parathyroid [,pærə‘θair id], adrenal [əd’ri:nəl], testes [‘testi:z], ovaries [‘əuvəriz], placenta [plə’sentə], intestine [in’testin], heart [ha:t], pancreatitis [,pæŋkriə’taitis], pancreatic [,pæŋkri’ætik], cancer [‘kænsə], diabetes [,daiə’bi:ti:z]
Make a report on the endocrine system according to the plan below:
Definition:a control system of ductless glands, the organs that produce hormones: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, the thyroid gland, the parathyroid glands, the liver, the pancreas, the adrenal glands, the testes in males, ovaries in females, and the placenta in females when pregnant as well as the heart, the stomach, the intestines, the kidneys, and the skin.
The pancreas: one of the most important parts of the endocrine system, a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems.
Functions: the pancreas: two major functions: exocrine (producing pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones including insulin).
Location: in the abdomen; posterior to the stomach and in close association with the duodenum.
Structure of the pancreas:the head, the neck, the body, the tail.
Size: 15-25 cm. The actual size of the pancreas is similar to a banana which has been stepped on.
The most common diseases: pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, type 1 diabetes (insulin dependent diabetes, childhood onset diabetes), type 2 diabetes ( non-insulin dependent diabetes, adult onset diabetes), cysts, pancreatic insufficiency, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, etc.
DIABETES
Phonetic exercise:endocrine [‘end ukrain; ‘end ukrin; ‘end ukri:n], exocrine [‘eksəukrain; ‘eksəukrin]; control [kən’trəul], insulin [‘insjəlin, ‘insjulin], pancreas [‘pæŋkriəs; ‘pæŋkriæs; ‘pænkriəs], enzymes [‘enzaimz], hormones [’h :məunz], diabetes [,daiə’bi:ti:z], gestational diabetes [,d3es’tei∫nl ,daiə’bi:ti:z], deficiency [di’fi∫ənsi], blurred [blə:d], vision [‘vi3n], nausea [‘n :siə], altered [‘ :ltəd], consciousness [‘k n∫əsnis], glucose [‘glu:kəus], hemoglobin [,hi:məu’gləubin], fasting [‘fa:stiŋ]
Make a report on diabetes according to the plan below:
Definition:a condition in which a person has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced.
Epidemiology:at least 171 million people worldwide suffer from diabetes, or 2.8% of the population.
Classification:
Type 1 diabetes: also known as insulin dependent diabetes, childhood onset diabetes; results from the body's failure to produce insulin, and presently requires the person to inject insulin.
Type 2 diabetes: also known as non-insulin dependent diabetes, adult onset diabetes; results from insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to use insulin properly, sometimes combined with an absolute insulin deficiency.
Gestational diabetes: is when pregnant women, who have never had diabetes before, have a high blood glucose level during pregnancy.
Other forms of diabetes mellitus: congenital diabetes, which is due to genetic defects of insulin secretion, cystic fibrosis-related diabetes, steroid diabetes induced by high doses of glucocorticoids,
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst) and polyphagia (increased hunger); changes in the shape of the lenses of the eyes, blurred vision, diabetic ketoacidosis, a state of metabolic dysregulation characterized by the smell of acetone; a rapid, deep breathing known as Kussmaul breathing; nausea; vomiting and abdominal pain; and an altered states of consciousness; a number of skin rashes known as diabetic dermadromes.
Evaluation: History:a personal medical history, a medication history, a family history, an alcohol consumption history, a social history, an occupational history, a diet history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, percussion, palpation, and auscultation.
Instrumental evaluation: plasma glucose tests; fasting plasma glucose level tests;
hemoglobin tests, etc.
Treatment: difficult to cure; appropriate medications (insulin only in the case of type 1 diabetes mellitus; oral medications in the case of type 2 diabetes, as well as insulin); close dietary management, exercise, control of blood pressure, weight control, weight reduction, diabetic socks and possibly diabetic shoes, etc.
PANCREATITIS
Phonetic exercise:pancreas [‘pæŋkriəs; ‘pæŋkriæs; ‘pænkriəs], enzymes [‘enzaimz], hormones [’h :məunz], pancreatitis [,pæŋkriə’taitis], pancreatic [,pæŋkri’ætik], cancer [‘kænsə], acute [ə’kju:t], chronic [‘kr nik], steatorrhea [,sti:ətə’riə], respiratory [ri’spirətəri; ri’spairərətəri; ‘respirətəri], hypercalcemia [‘haipə,kæl’si:miə] congenital [kən’d3enətl], ultrasound [‘Λltrəsaund], amylase [‘æmileis], lipase [‘lipeis], imaging [‘imid3iŋ], adequate [‘ædikwət], intravenously [,intrə’vi:nəsli]
Make a report on pancreatitis according to the plan below:
Definition:inflammation of the pancreas.
Classification: two very different forms: acute pancreatitis is sudden while chronic pancreatitis is characterized by recurring or persistent abdominal pain with or without steatorrhea or diabetes mellitus.
Symptoms, signs, clinical manifestations, clinical features: severe upper abdominal pain, with radiation through to the back; nausea and vomiting; high or low blood pressure; elevated heart and respiratory rates; abdominal tenderness.
Causes:gallstones in acute pancreatitis; excessive alcohol use in chronic pancreatitis and acute pancreatitis; less common causes: hypertriglyceridemia, hypercalcemia, viral infection (e.g., mumps), trauma (to the abdomen or elsewhere in the body), pancreas divisum, a common congenital malformation of the pancreas, pregnancy, type 2 diabetes, etc.
Evaluation: History:a personal medical history, a medication history, a family history, an alcohol consumption history, a social history, an occupational history, a diet history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, percussion, palpation, and auscultation.
Instrumental evaluation: laboratory tests: measurement of amylase and/or lipase, ultrasound imaging and CT scanning of the abdomen, CT, etc.
Treatment: provision of pain relief; provision of adequate replacement fluids and salts (intravenously); dietary fat restriction; fluoroquinolone with metronidazole, etc.
MEDICAL HUMOR: MEDICAL SLANG
Betty - a patient with diabetes. "Did you give that betty on Ward 4 his insulin?"
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Phonetic exercise:respiratory [ri’spirətəri; ri’spairərətəri; ‘respirətəri], allow [ə’lau], through [‘θru:], fluid [‘flu:id], exchange [iks’t∫eind3], pharynx [‘færiŋks], throat [θrəut], immediately [i’mi:diətli], cavity [‘kævəti], superior [su:’piəriə; sju:’piəriə], esophagus [i:’s fəgəs], larynx [‘læriŋks], trachea [trə‘ki:ə; trei‘ki:ə], lungs [lΛŋz], bronchus [‘br ŋkəs], bronchi [‘br ŋkai], passages [‘pæsid3iz], airways [‘εəwiz], respiration [,respə’rei∫n], inspiration [,inspə’rei∫n], expiration [,expi’rei∫n], capacity [kə‘pæsiti], tracheitis [,trə‘ki’aitis], bronchitis [,br ŋk’aitis], pneumonia [nju:’məuniə], chronic [‘kr nik], obstructive [ə’b’strΛktiv], pulmonary [‘pΛlmənəri; ‘pulmənəri], disease [di’zi:z], lung cancer [lΛŋ ‘kænsə]
Make a report on the respiratory system according to the plan below:
Definition:the system that allows gas exchange through all parts of the body.
Function: to allow gas exchange.
Structure: the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract.
The upper respiratory tract:
the nasal cavity: a large fluid filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face.
The pharynx: the part of the neck and throat situated immediately behind the mouth and nasal cavity, superior to the esophagus, larynx, and trachea.
The larynx: an organ in the neck involved in protection of the trachea and sound production.
The lower respiratory tract:
the trachea, or windpipe: a tube that is connected to the pharynx or larynx;
the bronchi: passages of airway that conduct air into the lungs;
the lungs:the main organs of respiration: the left lung: 2 lobes; the right lung: 3 lobes; 300-500 million alveoli; the respiration rate: 10-20 breaths per minute; the vital capacity: 4-6 liters.
The most common diseases: tracheitis, acute bronchitis, chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, bacterial pneumonia, viral pneumonia, fungal pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, TB, lung cancer, etc.
PNEUMONIA
Phonetic exercise:disorder [dis’so:də; diz’o::də], pneumonia [nju:’məuniə], characterized [‘kæktəraizd], viral [‘vaiərəl], bacterial [bæk’tiəriəl], bacteria [bæk’tiəriə], lungs [lΛŋz], parenchyma [pə‘reŋkimə], alveoli [‘ælvi lai], alveolar [‘ælvi lə], fungi [‘fΛŋgai], parasitic [,pærəs’sitik], parasites [‘pærəsaits], exudation [,eksju:’dei∫n], severe [si’viə], mucous [‘mju:kəs], mucus [‘mju:kəs], chronic [‘kr nik], acute [ə’kju:t], antigen [‘æntid3ən], cough [k :f], rales [ra:lz], dyspnea [disp’ni:ə], antibiotics [,æntibai’ tiks], cessation [səs’ei∫n]
Make a report on pneumonia according to the plan below:
Definition: an inflammatory condition of the lung, often characterized as inflammation of the parenchyma of the lung (that is, the alveoli) and abnormal alveolar filling with fluid (consolidation and exudation).
Causes: viruses and bacteria.
Less common causes of infectious pneumonia: fungi and parasites.
Evaluation: History:a personal medical history, a medication history, a family history, a smoking history, a history of contacts with infected individuals, a social history, an occupational history, etc.
Physical examination: observation, percussion, palpation, and auscultation.
Instrumental evaluation: chest X-ray, occasionally a chest CT (computed tomography), sputum cultures, blood tests: a complete blood count, specific blood serology tests for other bacteria (Mycoplasma, Legionella and Chlamydophila), a urine tests, respiratory secretion tests, liver function tests, etc.
Combining findings:fever > 37.8 °C (100.0 °F), pulse > 100 beats/min, rales/crackles, decreased breath sounds, absence of asthma.
Treatment: treatment for community acquired pneumonia: oral antibiotics, rest, fluids, and home care; hospitalization for severe pneumonia.
Treatment for bacterial pneumonia: amoxicillin, erythromycin, or azithromycin, etc.
Treatment for viral pneumonia: no specific treatments.
Prevention:smoking cessation; vaccination, etc.
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