Classification of speech sounds
Consonants. Consonants are sounds, where noise prevails (доминирует) over tone. Such sounds may be pronounced with or without vocal cords vibration. Consonants are made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouse or nasal cavities. On the articulatory level consonants change:
• In the degree of noise. According it consonants are divided into two classes: noise and sonorants. Noise consonant sounds according to the work of vocal cords may be voiced (lenis - слабые) or voiceless (fortis - сильные). When the vocal cords vibrate, we hear voiced: d, b, g, z, δ, v, з, dз. Voiceless: t, p, k, s, θ, f, ι, tι, h. Noise consonants may vary in the degree of force articulation. Voiceless consonants are produced with more muscular energy and breath effort, that`s why they are fortis. Voiced (lenis) consonants are produced with weak breath effort. Sonorants (sonorous consonants) are produced with tone prevailing over noise: l, m, n, η, j (й), r, w.
• In the manner of articulation. The manner of articulation depends on the type of obstruction. Obstruction may be complete (air stream meets closure (закрытие)), incomplete (air stream goes through the narrowing) and momentary. Consonants may be occlusive (смычные), constrictive (щелевые), occlusive-constrictive (affricates) and rolled. Occlusive are sounds, where air stream meets complete obstruction. Occlusive noise consonants are called stops because the breath is completely stopped and then it is released (выпускается) with an explosion (пуск). Noise consonants are divided into voiced (d, b, g) and voiceless (t, p, k). Sonorants (m, n, η) are also made with complete obstruction. During the pronunciation of constrictive consonants the air stream meets incomplete obstruction. Noise are called fricatives, because air stream goes through the narrowing with friction. Fricatives also differ in the work of vocal cords (voiced: z, δ, v, з, voiceless: s, θ, f, ι, h) and in the degree of force articulation (lenis, fortis). Sonorants: l, r, w, j. Affricates are noise consonants, which pronounced with friction (dз, tι).
• In the place of articulation. Consonants may be: labial, lingual, glottal. Labial consonants are made by the lips. They may be bilabial or labiodental. During the pronunciation of bilabial consonants both lips are active (m, w, p, b). Labiodental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth (f, v).
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Lingual consonants are classified into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual. Forelingual are articulated with the tip of the tongue. They may be: interdental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar. Interdental sounds are made with the tip of the tongue between the teeth: δ, θ. Dental sounds are produced with the blade (скольжение) of the tongue against the teeth, there are no dentals in English. Alveolars are articulated with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge: t, d, s, z, n, l. Post-alveolars are mad when the tip of the tongue touches the back part of the alveohlar ridge or is behind it: r. Palato-alveolars are made, when the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate and the tip of the tongue touches the alveohlar ridge: dз, tι, з, ι. Mediolinguals are articulated with the front part of the tongue: j. Backimguals (are also called velars) are articulated with the back part of the tongue raised to the soft palate: k, g, η. Glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis (голосовая щель).
Vowels. On the articulatory level vowels are divided:
In the stability of articulation. According to the stability of articulation all English vowels are divided into three groups: monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids. In monophthongs vowels the articulation is almost unchanging. The English monophthongs are: i, e, ǽ, a:, o, o:, u, A, ә:, ә (большинство русских). In the pronunciation of diphthongoids the articulation is slightly changing, but the difference between the starting point and the end is not so distinct as in the diphthongs. English diphthongoids are: i, u (о – в русском). In the pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of speech glide from one vowel position to another within one syllable. The starting point is strong and distinct. The glide is very weak. The English diphthongs are: ei, ai, oi, au, ou, iә, еә, uә (в русском нет).
• In the tongue position. Our tongue may move up and down, forward and backward, thus changing the quality of vowel sounds.
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1) When the tongue moves forward and backward, different parts of it may be raised to the palate. When the tongue is in front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard palate, we pronounce front vowels (such as i:, i, e, әe).
When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back part of it is raised towards the soft palate a back vowel is pronounced: a:, o, o:, u, u:.
When the front part of the tongue is raised to the back part of the hard palate the vowels are called central (A, ә:, ә).
2). When the tongue moves up and down different parts of it raises to different heigh in our mouth. When the front or back part of the tongue is raised high to the palate, such vowels are called high (close): i:, i, u, u:). When the front or back part of the tongue is as low as possible in the mouth low (open) are pronounced: әe:, a, o, o:). When the tip of the tongue is in position between high (close) and low (open), we pronounced mid-level vowels: e, A, ә, ә:).
• In the lip position. When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are called unrounded: i:, i, e, әе, a:, A, ә:, ә. When the lips are together so and the opening between them is more or less round, the vowels are called rounded: o, o:, u, u:.
• In the vowel length. Vowels are capable of being continued during a long or a short period. All English vowels are divided into long (i:, a:, o:, u:, ә:) and short (i, a, o, u, ә). But for the practical speech training is not enough to know the length of vowel.
• Character of vowel end. The quality of English monophthongs in the stressed position is affected by the following consonant of the same syllable. If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case vowel is called checked. Such vowels are heard in stress close syllables (better).
If a vowel is followed by a weak voiced consonant or by no consonant at all the end of it is weak. In this case the vowel is called free. Such vowels are heard in close syllables or in the open syllable: before.
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Lip position
There are between 7 to 10 different mouth positions needed for the complete phonetic range of sounds in the English language. Each mouth position represents one or more phonemes. The shape of the mouth is also largely dependent on the position of the lips. Unrounded – when the lips are neutral or spread [i:, I, e, æ, a:, ˄, ә:,ә]. Rounded when the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round [ͻ, ͻ:, u, u:]. English front and central vowels are always unrounded. English back vowels / 
/, / 
, / o /, / 
/ are rounded (/ 
/ vowel is unrounded). Vowels are also classified according to the position of lips. They are divided into two categories 1. Un rounded 2. Rounded. Un rounded vowels are those during the articulation of which the lips are spread or natural Eg. In the English word like sit, set, sea, sat. Rounded vowels are those during the articulation of which the lips are rounded Eg. In the English words Cot, caught, put, boot, full. The lips are rounded.
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