Lexical expressive means. Periphrases. Euphemism. Litotes.
1) Periphrasis is a very peculiar stylistic device which basically consists of using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one, i.e. of using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word. Depending on the mechanism of this substitution, periphrases are classified into figurative (metonymic and metaphoric), and logical.
Figurative periphrases is made, in fact, of phrase-metonymies and phrase-metaphors, as you may well see from the following example: "The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of the fighting in Africa" (I.Sh.) where the extended metonymy stands for "the wounded".
Logical periphrases are phrases synonymic with the words which were substituted by periphrases: "Mr. Du Pont was dressed in the conventional disguise with which Brooks Brothers cover the shame of American millionaires." (M.St.) "The conventional disguise" stands here for "the suit" and "the shame of American millionaires" — for "the paunch (the belly)". Because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description this periphrasis may be also considered euphemistic, as it offers a more polite qualification instead of a coarser one.
The main function of periphrases is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object. To achieve it the generally accepted nomination of the object is replaced by the description of one of its features or qualities, which seems to the author most important for the characteristic of the object, and which thus becomes foregrounded.
The often repeated periphrases become trite and serve as universally accepted periphrastic synonyms: "the gentle / soft / weak sex" (women); "my better half (my spouse); "minions of Law" (police), etc.
2) Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. The origin of the term 'euphemism' discloses the aim of the device very clearly, i.e. speaking well. Euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a whitewashing device". The linguistic peculiarity of euphemism lies in the fact that every euphemism must call up a definite synonym in the mind of the reader or listener. The life of euphemisms is short. They very soon become closely associated with the referent (the object named) and give way to a newly-coined word or combination of words, which, being the sign of a sign, throws another veil over an unpleasant or indelicate concept.
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Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical and 4) parliamentary.
Political euphemisms. These are really understatements, the aim of which is to mislead public opinion and to express what is unpleasant in a more delicate manner. As has already been explained, genuine euphemism must call up the word it stands for. It is always the result of some deliberate clash between two synonyms. If a euphemism fails to carry along with it the word it is intended to replace, it is not a euphemism, but a deliberate veiling of the truth.
Types of Euphemisms:
· To Soften an Expression - Some euphemisms are used to make a blunt or obnoxious truth seem less hard (“Passed away” instead of “Died”, “Letting someone go” instead of “Firing someone”, “On the streets? instead of “Homeless”).
· Euphemisms to be Polite - Some euphemisms are used to take the place of words or phrases one might not want to say in polite circle (“Adult beverages” instead of “Beer” or “Liquor”, “Big-boned” instead of “Heavy” or “Overweight”, “Vertically-challenged” instead of “Short”, “Economical with the truth” instead of “Liar”, “Between jobs” instead of “Unemployed”).
· Euphemisms to be Impolite - euphemisms are intentionally a callous or insensitive way of saying something. These euphemisms are usually used when being sarcastic or trying to make light of a serious subject or make it seem less serious (“Bit the dust” instead of “Died”, “Blow chunks” instead of “Vomited”, “Bit the farm” instead of “Died”).
3) Litotes is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation. Thus "not unkindly" actually means "kindly", though the positive effect is weakened and some lack of the speaker's confidence in his statement is implied. The first component of litotes is always the negative particle "not", while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase.
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Litotes is especially expressive when the semantic center of the whole structure is stylistically or/and emotionally colored, as in the case of the following occasional creations: "Her face was not unhandsome" (A.H.) or "Her face was not unpretty". (K.K.)
The function of litotes has much in common with that of understatement - both weaken the effect of the utterance. The uniqueness of litotes lies in its specific "double negative" structure and in its weakening only the positive evaluation. The Russian term "литота" corresponds only to the English "understatement" as it has no structural or semantic limitations.
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