Lexical expressive means. Metonymy. Synecdoche.
Metonymy
Metonymy denotes a transference of meaning which is based on contiguity of notions (перенос, основанный на смежности понятий, явлений), not on resemblance. In cases of metonymy, the name of one object is used instead of another, closely connected with it.
Metonymy reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a chance feature of the thing.
Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism, meaning it gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. Texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings, thus drawing readers’ attention. In addition, the use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness. For instance, “Rifles were guarding the gate” is more concise than “The guards with rifles in their hands were guarding the gate.”
Furthermore, like other literary devices, metonymy is employed to add a poetic color to words to make them come to life. The simple ordinary things are described in a creative way to insert this “life” factor to literary works.
This may include:
1. The name of a part instead of the name of a whole (synecdoche, синекдоха):
Washington and London (= USA and UK) agree on most issues;
2. The name of a container instead of the contents:
He drank a whole glass of whiskey (= drank the liquid contained in a glass). This is such a frequent type of transference of meaning in the language system that in many cases (like the latter example), it is not perceived as a stylistic device. Sometimes, however, the stylistic use of this change of meaning can be still felt, and then it is perceived as a figure of speech: The whole town was out in the streets (= the people of the town).
3. The name of a characteristic feature of an object instead of the object:
The massacre of the innocents (= children; this biblical phrase is related to the killing of Jewish male children by King Herod in Bethlehem).
4. The name of an instrument instead of an action or the doer of an action:
All they that take the sword, shall perish with the sword (= war, fighting).
Let us turn swords into ploughs (= Let us replace fighting by peaceful work; Перекуем мечи на орала).
As a rule, metonymy is expressed by nouns (less frequently - by substantivized numerals) and is used in syntactical functions characteristic of nouns (subject, object, predicative).
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a rhetorical trope and a type of figurative speech similar to metonymy—a figure of speech that uses a term that denotes one thing to refer to a related thing. Indeed, synecdoche is sometimes considered a subclass of metonymy. It is more distantly related to other figures of speech, such as metaphor.
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More rigorously, metonymy and synecdoche can be considered subspecies of metaphor, intending metaphor as a type of conceptual substitution.
The two main types of synecdoche are microcosm and macrocosm. A microcosm uses a part of something to refer to the entirety. An example of this is someone saying that they “need a hand" with a project, when they really need the entire person. A macrocosm is the opposite, using the name of the entire structure of something to refer to a small part. An example of this is saying "the world," when the speaker really means a certain country or part of the world.
This type of reference is quite common in politics. The residence of an executive is often credited for the executive's action. A spokesperson of the Executive Office of the President of the United States is identified in "The White House announced a new plan to reduce hunger."
It is also popular in advertising. Since synecdoche uses a part to represent a whole, its use requires the audience to make associations and "fill in the gaps", engaging with the ad by thinking about the product. Moreover, catching the attention of an audience with advertising is often referred to by advertisers as "getting eyeballs", another synecdoche.
Lexical expressive means. Antonomasia. Allegory.
Antonomasia (a variant of metaphor) a trope which consists in the use of a proper name to denote a different person who possesses some qualities of the primary owner of the name: Every Caesar has his Brutus (O'Henry).
As in other stylistic devices based on the interaction of lexical meanings, the two kinds of meanings must be realized in the word simultaneously. Tоken or telling names. They give information to the reader about the bearer of the name. It only serves the purpose of identification. Proper names, i.e. the words with nominal meaning, can etymologically, in the majority of cases, be traced to some quality, property or trait of a person, or to his occupation. Antonomasia is intended to point out the leading, most characteristic feature of a person or event, at the same time pinning this leading trait as a proper name to the person or event concerned.
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Antonomasia is a much favoured device in the belles-lettres style. It is often found in publicistic style, that is, in magazine and newspaper articles, in essays and also in military language.
Antonomasia is created mainly by nouns, more seldom by attributive combinations (as in "Dr. Fresh Air") or phrases (as in "Mr. What's-his name"). Common nouns used in the second type of antonomasia are in most cases abstract, though there are instances of concrete ones being used too.
1 st type aim of singling it out of the group of similar objects, of individualizing one particular object. Indeed, the word "Mary" does not indicate whether the denoted object refers to the class of women, girls, boats, cats, etc., for it singles out without denotational classification. But in Th. Dreiser we read: "He took little satisfaction in telling each Mary, shortly after she arrived, something...." The attribute "each", used with the name, turns it into a common noun denoting any female.
2 type we meet when a common noun serves as an individualizing name, as in D. Cusack: "There are three doctors in an illness like yours. I don't mean only myself, my partner and the radiologist who does your X-rays, the three I'm referring to are Dr. Rest, Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh Air."
3 type is presented by the so-called "speaking names" - names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. such names as Mr.Snake or Mr.Backbite immediately raise associations with certain human qualities due to the denotational meaning of the words “snake” and “backbite”.
Allegory
An allegory is a work of art, such as a story or painting, in which the characters, images, and/or events act as symbols. The symbolism in an allegory can be interpreted to have a deeper meaning. An author may use allegory to illustrate a moral or spiritual truth, or political or historical situation.
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Allegories can be understood to be a type of extended metaphor. An extended metaphor develops a certain analogy to a greater extent than a simple comparison. An allegory, meanwhile, uses a particular metaphor throughout an entire plot.
Allegories have been used for centuries in many different cultures. They are used to teach lessons, explain moral concepts, and show the author’s views on a certain situation. An allegory is a very specific type of story, as it must stay true to the message for the entirety of the story. Allegories thus can be difficult to master, as they can be pedantic when done poorly. However, some works of literature that can be read allegorically gain much strength from their deeper meanings.
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