Graphical expressive means and stylistic devices. Graphon. Stylistic use of punctuation, change of spelling.
Graphon – the intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation.
Graphon proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information about the speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical and emotional condition etc.
Graphon, thus, individualizing the character’s speech, adds to his plausibility, vividness, memorability. At the same time graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of speech act. Some amalgamated forms, which are the result of strong assimilation, became clichés in contemporary prose dialogue: “gimme” (give me), “lemme” (let me), “gonna” (going to), “gotta” (got to), “coupla” (couple of), “mighta” (might have). The flavour of informality brought graphon popularity with admen. On the other hand, graphon shows the physical defects of the speaker – the stuttering, the lisping
Marks of punctuation: hyphen, dash, comma, period (full-stop), colon, semicolon, exclamation, interrogation, series of dots. They are used not only for the division of speech into its logical parts, but also for emphatic purposes which suggest a definite semantic interpretation of the utterance
Another group of graphical means is based on the violation of type: italics, bold type, capitalization. Not only words but separate syllables, morphemes may be emphasized by italics. Spaced type is also included into this group of graphical means though it is not so frequent as italics.
Intensity of speech (often in commands) is transmitted through the multiplication of a grapheme or capitalization of the word
Summing up the informational options of the graphical arrangement of a word (a line, a discourse), one sees their varied application for recreating the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act - all aimed at revealing and emphasizing the author's viewpoint
Lexical expressive means. Metaphor. Personification.
A stylistic device may be defined as a pattern according to which the peculiarities of the language may be materialized.
Lexical stylistic devices reveal (раскрывают) the following patterns:
* Interplay of different types of lex. meaning;
* Intensification (усиление) of characteristic traits of the phenomena described;
* Intentional (намеренно) mixing of word of different stylistic aspects
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METAPHOR
Metaphor denotes a transference of meaning based on resemblance, in other words, on a covert comparison:
He is not a man, he is just a machine
What an ass you are!
Metaphor is widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning.
Not only objects can be compared in a metaphor, but also phenomena, actions or qualities:
Some books are to be tasted
Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts of speech, and functions in the sentence as any of its members.
There is no true similarity, but there is a kind of identification. Therefore it is better to define metaphor as the power of realizing two lexical meanings simultaneously. Due to this power metaphor is one of the most potent means of creating images
A metaphor becomes a SD when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties. Such an imposition generally results when the creator of the metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his eye have something in common.
Stylistic metaphors can be classified semantically and structurally.
Semantically, according to their degree of unexpectedness, metaphors are divided into genuine and trite. In the genuine metaphor the clash of two meanings results in to something imaginary, they are to be found in poetry and emotive prose - There had been rain in the night, and now all the trees were curtseying to afresh wind . A trite metaphor is one that is overused in speech, so that it has lost its freshness of expression. Such metaphors often turn into idiomatic phrases (phraseological expressions) that are fixed in dictionaries - seeds of evil, flood of fears .
Structurally metaphors can be classified as simple, when expressed by a word or phrase (man cannot live by bread alone = by things satisfying only his physical needs), and complex (prolonged, or sustained), when a broader context is required to understand it, or when the metaphor includes more than one element of the text.
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Functions
* they put abstract concepts in concrete terms: by relating intellectual information to an actual concept, it becomes easier for people to understand the info.
* they create familiarity: identifying conceptual arrays helps us to accept and understand the unfamiliar.
- they elicit emotions
- they can draw the attention of users
PERSONIFICATION
If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification, as in "the face of London", or "the pain of the ocean".
A personification is a figure of speech that gives an inanimate object or abstract idea human traits and qualities, such as emotions, desires, sensations, physical gestures and speech. It gives the reader a sense of imagery by helping the reader paint a picture in their mind allowing the author to further express his writing.
* In business and political news reportage, personification is commonly used to convey a sense of agency for otherwise abstract entities like nations, machines or corporations - US Defends Sale of Ports Company to Arab Nation.
* In English literature, personification is oft-used as a literary device
* In poetry, fables, etc., personification is often represented grammatically by the choice of masculine or feminine pronouns for the names of animals, inanimate objects or forces of nature (He is used for the Sun, the Wind, for the names ofany animals that act like human beings in the tale (The Cat who walked by himself), forstrong, active phenomena (Death, Ocean. River) or feelings (Fear, Love). The pronoun She is used for what is regarded as rather gentle (the Moon, Nature, Silence, Beauty, Hope, Mercy: cf. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, But Melancholy marked him for her own — Gray) or in some way woman-like (in Aesop's fable about The Crow and the Fox, the pronoun She is used for the Crow, whose behaviour is coquettish and light-minded, whereas He is used for the Fox).
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Examples:
Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn’t she?
The wind whispered through dry grass.
The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
Time and tide wait for none.
The fire swallowed the entire forest
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