Word-structure. Means of Word-building.
The Adverb vs Modal Words.
Class Migration processes. Substantavisation of Adjectives; Adjectivisation of Nouns.
The Problem of the Articles in English.
The Adjective and the Stative. The Problem of its Discrimination
The Connectors (Conjunctions and Prepositions).
The Emotives (Particles and Interjections).
The Problem of Discrimination between the Participle, Gerund and Verbal Noun.
The Pronoun. Problematic Points of the Class.
18. The Numeral.+
Syntax
1. Syntax. System Characteristics+
Sintagmatic Relations between the Components of an Utterance.
3. The Sentence. Classification of Sentences (structural and communicative)+
4. Simple Sentence (Types and notions).+
5. The Composite Sentence.+
Word Order.
Parts of a Sentence. The Main Members.
The Secondary Members of a Sentence.
9. One-member Sentences and Elliptical Sentences.+
Supersyntax: Supraphrasal Unity, Text.
Actual Division of a Sentence. The Theme and Rheme
GENERAL NOTIONS
Grammar in the Systemic Conception of Language.
Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. Language consists of 3 constituent parts which form a unity.
• Phonological
• Lexical
• Grammatical systems
The grammatical system is studied by Grammar. It can be regarded from the theoretical or practical point of view. The aim of theoretical grammar is to give theoretical description of the grammatical system of a given language.
The special stress is laid on the systematic character of language. The systematic approach was worked down by Бодуэн де Куртене , Фердинанд де Соссюр. They outlined the difference between:
| Language proper | Speech proper |
| A system of means of expression in the process of interaction | The realization of the system of language |
The nature of grammar as a constituent part of language is better understood in the light of explicitly discriminating the two planes of language, namely, the plane of content and the plane of expression.
| The plane of content | the plane of expression |
| the purely semantic elements contained in language | the material (formal) units of language taken by themselves, apart from the meanings rendered by them |
| meaning | form |
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The correspondence between the planes of content and expression is very complex, and it is peculiar to each language. This complexity is clearly illustrated by the phenomena of polysemy, homonymy, and synonymy.
In cases of polysemy and homonymy, two or more units of the plane of content correspond to one unit of the plane of expression. In cases of synonymy, conversely, two or more units of the plane of expression correspond to one unit of the plane of content. (примеры в таблице)
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| go 1. habitual action (he goes to school) 2. action at the present moment (she goes to the party) 3. general truth (life goes on) | morphemic element -s/-es 1. third person singular of the verbal present tense (goes) 2. plural of the noun (flowers) 3. possessive form of the noun (chief’s) | future action 1. future indefinite (are you going to that party tomorrow?) 2. future continuous (tomorrow I will be doing my homework the whole evening) 3. present continuous (I will practice my speaking all summer) |
The purpose of grammar as a linguistic discipline is to disclose and formulate the regularities of the correspondence between the plane of content and the plane of expression in the formation of utterances out of the stocks of words as part of the process of speech production.
Two fundamental types of relations between linguistic units:
| Syntagmatic | Paradigmatic |
| Linear relations between units in a segmental sequence(Morphemes in a word,words in a sentence) | Intra-systemic relations. They find their expression in the fact that each ling. unit is included in a set of similar units with common formal and functional properties (Paradigm of forms) |
Another approach to the analysis of language as a kind of system, language can be looked upon as a hierarchy of levels:
1. Supra-proposemic level (combination of separate sentences forming a textual unity).
2. Proposemic level (Sentences nominate situation or events and express predication. Their main function is that they show the relation of the denoted situation or event to reality (time or modality). Sentences are predicative units.)
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3. Phrasemic level (Phrases are word combinations, they nominate complex phenomena)
4. Lexemic level (Words are nominative units, because they nominate things and phenomena. They are built up by morphemes.)
5. Morphemic level (Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units built up by phonemes or one phoneme.)
6. Phonemic level (Phonemes are meaningless units, their function is differential.)
Grammar constituent parts:
§ Morphology
§ Syntax
Word-structure. Means of Word-building.
If we describe a word as a basic autonomous unit of language resulting in the association of a given sound pattern with a particular meaning, and which is capable of a grammatical employment and able to form a sentence by itself, we have the possibility to distinguish it from the other fundamental language unit - the morpheme.
Morpheme – the smallest indivisible component of the word possessing a meaning of its own. A morpheme is also an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. But unlike a word it is not autonomous. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, although a word may consist of a single morpheme.
[Morphemes may be classified from the semantic point of view and the structural point of view.
Structurally, a morpheme is said to be either bound or free. It means that some morphemes are capable of forming words without adding other morphemes. Free morpheme is a morpheme which coincides with a word-form of an independently functioning word. Free morphemes can be found only among roots: event- in the word eventful.
Bound morpheme is a morpheme which does not coincide with a separate word-form. Bound morphemes include all affixes (prefix –de in the word decode; suffix –less in the word fearless) and some root-morphemes (docu- in the word document; theor- in the words theory, theoretical).
Semi-bound morpheme (semi-affix) is a morpheme which stands midway between a root and an affix. It can function as an independent full-meaning word and at the same time as an affix. Compare: to speak ill of somebody – ill-dressed; to be proof against water – waterproof; half- / half-eaten; maxi- / maxi-skirt.]
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According to the role morphemes play in constructing words (semantically), they are subdivided into roots and affixes. The latter are further subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and infixes (нет в английском); and according to their function and meaning, into derivational and functional affixes (endings). When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is a stem. A stem may also be defined as the part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. Stem can be simple if it contains nothing but the root, and derived if it consists of a root morpheme and an affix.
Root (radical) is the lexical nucleus of a word. It remains after the removal of all functional and derivational affixes and does not admit any further analysis: needless, precook, fire-eater. It is the common element of words within a word-family.
Prefix – is a derivational affix standing before the stem and modifying its meaning: insensitive, ex-minister, reread.
Suffix is a derivational affix following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech (actor, washable) or in a different word class within the same part of speech (kingdom).
Inflection (ending, grammatical suffix, inflectional suffix) is a functional affix. Inflections carry only the grammatical meaning and are relevant only for the formation of word-forms, whereas derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. Thus suffixes perform the word-building function (play, player, playful, playfully, playfulness), while the function of inflections is form-changing (play, plays, played, playing).
Lexicalized grammatical affix is a grammatical suffix (inflection) which developed into a derivational suffix. In words like customs “import duties” or at the dentist’s -s does not express plurality or the possessive case.
Depending on the morphemes used in the word there are Main structural types of Modern English words:
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Simple (root) words have only a root morpheme in their structure and an inflexion. (street, boys)
Derived words (derivatives) - words which consist of a root, one or several affixes and an inflexion. (undo)
Compound words consist of 2 or more root morphemes and an inflexion. (bluebells, boyfriend)
Compound-derived words – consist of 2 or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion. (blue-eyed) Shortenings or contractions – words produced by the way of word-building called shortening/ contraction. (lab, flu)
There are two principal types of form-building means: synthetic and analytical.
The synthetic form-building means is the expression of the relation of words in the sentence by means of a change in the word itself. There are three types of the synthetic form-building means:
Affixation is the most productive means of expressing a grammatical meaning. The number of grammatical suffixes is small (8). They are:-s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est, -en, -m (him, them, whom), zero.
Sound interchange is a change of a sound in the root of the word. There exist two kinds of sound interchange – vowel and consonant ones (spend – spent).
In suppletive forms there is a complete change of the phonetic shape of the root.
as TO BE, TO GO GOOD, BAD, CAN – BE ABLE, MUST – HAVE TO
Analytical forms were described as a combination of an auxiliary and a notional word. MORE INTERESTING
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