Sleepwalking and Night Terrors

While insomnia, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy are most common among adults, sleepwalking and night terrors occur far more commonly among children. Sleepwalking, also known as somnambulism, is experienced by about 25 percent of all children at least once in their life. During one of these episodes, the child will leave his bed and walk around in a slow, uncoordinated manner. Night terrors are intense, vivid, and usually brief periods of fear. Symptoms include sweating, restlessness, increased heartbeat, and thrashing. While night terrors are dramatic and frightening, they are generally not viewed as a sleep disorder unless they occur on a regular, frequent basis.

http://www.netplaces.com/psychology/altered-states-of-consciousness/sleep-disorders.htm

How we moved out from grief.

A month before Deborah's diagnosis we had a huge bash to celebrate our 20th wedding anniversary, with our four children and a sea of friends and relations. Life could not have tasted sweeter. I was busy directing commercials as Debs wrote on health, psychology, colonies anything that fascinated her. As health editor of Vogue for most of her career and author of books on how to look after oneself, she had a firm grasp of how to make the best of lite. She had smoked for seven years, from her late teens, unconcerned in those days, as was society. But we never could have anticipated what was to come.

In June of 2004 Debs had suffered an unusual spontaneous fracture in a rib. Her regular running was becoming more of an effort, and in November headaches led her to a neurologist. X-rays revealed a snowstorm of white shadows clouding her chest. It took four days to confirm the dreaded news that Deborah had stage IV cancer. There is no stage V.

I felt desperate for Debs. How could we possibly tell our children? But she quietly and simply announced there was only one way to deal with this, 'to face it with grace and dignity'. And so she did. Her strength was ours as a family.

Meanwhile neighbours helped out wherever and whenever: visits to the chemotherapy clinic, distractions for the children, regular deliveries from the 'Collander Girls' - 20 local busy mums who took it in turns to make us meals three times a week. The help and support raised our spirits. We often reflected on how lucky we were, having so often seen the despair written on the faces of those unaccompanied in the oncology waiting room. In fact, it was what inspired Debs to write her book, What Can I do to Help?, in those last months.

Debs never shrank from the truth, however unpalatable. She became increasingly thin, bringing the idea of her dying very close at times, while at others we clung to the tentative promise of some new unproven drug.

It became apparent that Debs needed us as someone, seeing things from her point of view so she was not alone on her journey. We, too, had to acknowledge that death could be just around the corner. This may have seemed a tough way to deal with it, especially for our children who had from the start been told more or less everything: most significantly that we were only ever buying time.

Looking after Deborah, being at her side through interrupted nights of restless discomfort, led to conversations that left no stone unturned. We discussed the children's future, how they'd remember her, how she didn't want to die in hospital, how she wanted me to find happiness with someone else... but not too soon. We were acknowledging the truth of what lay ahead and yet their intensity drew us even closer. We talked of the mystery, that 'black door' and, though I am still left without answers, she did all she could to find them.

Throughout our happy lives together, we had both been lucky enough to feel independent, eminently strong, even a little competitive. But at the end we had both dropped out guard to show each other our true fears.

She died just after the launch of her book. We all felt its valedictory nature. Three days later I woke to find her at peace by my side. The light of my life had gone out.

Acknowledging the depth of my sadness has been a very important part of this strange feeling that has come home to roost. I have found that honesty is vital in grief. I now realise that children will accept the truth of any situation, however dire, and adapt.

Now, more than a year later, the odd wave of sadness still catches me out. I think of Debs often in the day and we talk of her every day at home, referring to mum's this or mum's that. The children and I have set up The Deborah Hutton Campaign to promote anti-smoking, in particular amongst young girls, led by my daughters Romilly and Clemmie.

At home, I think we have all felt the grief has not been as unbearable as at first we thought it would be. Laughter has not left us by any means as a family. There is a loss of innocence in being a close witness to death. Though I have no beliefs in which to find comfort or enlightened understanding, it has made death less of an irrational rear for me.

I would give anything to see her walk through our lives again, but that's how it is, and it is alright. Debs showed us how to live with cancer and the proximity of death, and in some ways has shown me how to live without her. Luckily, for us as a family, most of life's daily rhythms remain the same. It just feels very different.

 

Parent partner

One of the advantages of being a parent is that you know what it's like to be a child. You have your own checklist of things your parents got wrong which you are never going to repeat with your own children. So when your 12-year-old asks for a TV in her bedroom or wants to stay out late for a party, you know what the right answer is and you assume your partner will agree. After all, you both want the best for your child, don't you?

But suppose his idea of what's 'best' is different from yours? You're opposed to children watching TV alone in their room, but your partner feels equally strongly that you have to trust your child. Suddenly your united front is in pieces, you're having a row that you never saw coming, and now it's your child and your partner who are united against you. Whatever the outcome, someone will end up angry and aggrieved.

According to Susanna Abse, director of the Tavistock Centre for Couple Relationships, in such a situation everyone loses out. It's disconcerting for children if you argue about them in front of them — even if they are the victors. They feel triumphant, but also carry a burden of guilt because they realise they've caused a rift between you - and that can be a worry for them1 she says.

Remember that your partner is trying to do his best,' says Abse. 'Discuss with him what he is thinking and why he is doing the things he does.'

If, however, you do feel your partner is being abusive and discussing it hasn't helped, then you may need outside help.

In different situations, you need to square off in your own mind the fact that your partner has as much say over your child's upbringing as you have. 'Ask "why do I feel like this?'" says Abse. Try to become more self-reflective and less reactive.' Often these feelings are driven by your own earlier experiences; perhaps you were bullied yourself, and you are transferring these feelings from the past. 'You have to try to unpick what belongs in this situation and what belongs elsewhere.' In an ideal situation, parents present a united front. Yet this doesn't have to mean agreeing with your partner unquestioningly. It's more important that you're able to discuss freely what you think. Whether you can then present a united front despite your differences is really about your philosophy of parenting, says Janet Reibstein, professor of psychology at The University of Exeter. 'If you have chosen a partner with similar values then there will be fewer disputes between you.' But if you do have disputes, acknowledging that you have a relationship separate from the child can help. 'Spend time together listening to each other and thinking things through. Couples who do best are those who give time to each other, despite having children.'

By avoiding any show of disunity in front of the child, you also avoid giving him or her a chance to exploit the situation.

Disagreements can be healthy for a child to see, but not if the argument concerns the child. If this happens, Penny Mansfield, director of One Plus One Marriage and Partnership Research, advises extricating yourself as soon as possible. 'Say to the child, "Dad has just come in from work — give us five minutes." Then take your partner to one side and say, "shall we just deal with this?" Try to resolve things so the child sees you can have your differences, debate them and come to a conclusion.'

If you can manage this, then holding different views from your partner can even be beneficial, says Mansfield. 'It isn't that couples who manage their differences well don't have differences, but they talk about them and know how to deal with the disagreement. Showing that we can express our views and accept someone else's without being intimidated - that's one of the best lessons parents can give their children.' Perhaps it's also one of the best gifts we can share with our partners.

Adapted from the article 'PARENT PARTNER' 'Psychologies, January 2007

When bad moods are good for you

Over the past decades, in particular, psychologists have been using such laboratory experiments to investigate what moods are and why it is that they can fire us up one moment and drain us of energy the next.

Moods, and bad moods in particular, often appear to come from nowhere. We all have a tendency to notice the negative rather than the positive feelings, but the good news is that we are happier than we tend to think. When the Canadian psychologist Keith Oatley asked people to keep a diary of every mood they experienced throughout the day, it was the negative moods that predominated. But when he paged the people at random intervals and asked them to write down how they were feeling at that exact moment, it was clear that they felt good most of the time. The problem with negative moods is that we are far more likely to notice and remember them.

Rapid response

Whether it's anger, fear or pure joy, moods can feel overwhelming and beyond our control. Just one careless comment or email can trigger a new mood. They change very fast and with good reason. Fear in an emergency would not be very useful if it only crept up on you gradually. Emotions provide us with a ready-made way of responding to a situation without having to work out from scratch what we should do. This is why they can appear to hijack us so fast.

Moods are not just feelings we experience; they affect the way our minds work. If you're phobic about spiders, once you realise you're in a room with a spider, you focus on that and disregard almost everything else. Moods even influence the way we retrieve memories, whether recent or past. A person feeling sad finds it easier to remember other sad occasions, while a happy person remembers other happy times.

Emotional energy

Hope — the feeling that good things might happen in the future — is so powerful that it can even affect our health. Hope gives us energy, and research has shown that hopeful people are more likely to succeed at work, in sport, in academia and in politics. They are also happier and better at both persevering with a task and solving problems. One reason why hopeful people succeed is that they set themselves higher goals while setting more goals at a time, which buffers them against disappointment if one plan does not work out.

Positive emotions have clear and tangible benefits — hope can even make you live longer. But however destructive they seem, even temper tantrums and sulks have their uses. Emotions are all about communication. They give us information about the way other people feel.

The US psychologist James Averill asked people to think back to specific situations where they had either lost their temper or had been the target of someone else's anger. He found that, provided excessive aggression had not been used, the majority of the targets thought that the anger had been beneficial. They said it helped them to recognise their own faults and even strengthened their relationship with the angry person. Without anger at the world's injustices, would any one ever campaign for change?

Keeping it short

Even though a negative mood may have its uses, if it goes on too long it becomes very unpleasant to live with. When it comes to snapping out of a bad mood some people find it much easier than others. Children who have frequent tantrums at the age of eight tend to become adults who lose their tempers unusually often. Feeling at the mercy of our moods too much and too often is difficult and unpleasant for us, and alienating for people around us. But, with the help of our parents, we do gradually learn the skill of emotional regulation from babyhood onwards. This is the ability to control your mood.

It is hard to see why such an unpleasant sensation could be useful, but anxiety does provide an adrenaline rush that a lot of performers would not want to be without. Anxiety also prepares the body. Research conducted at Thames Valley University found that if people about to undergo surgery were given relaxation techniques to reduce their anxiety, their bodies actually found it harder to cope with the operation. A small amount of anxiety prepares us for what is to come. Looking at the research on moods, it's clear that we don't need to be afraid of our negative emotions. We imagine that it's essential to get control of our bad moods, or we risk being helpless in their grasp, and it's true that emotional management is a crucial part of our personal development and relationships. But there is another aspect to our emotional ups and downs: our feelings have important things to tell us, and we do well to listen to them.

Claudia Hammond is the author of 'Emotional Roller coaster: A Journey Through the Science of Feelings'

Adapted from the article ''When bad moods are good for you”.

 

‘’Psychologies,” January,2007.

Explanations for Forgetting

by Kendra Cherry

From forgetting to return an important phone call to not being able to remember where you left your car keys, forgetting is a common complaint that everyone shares. Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information from a memory due to a problem with encoding, storage, or retrieval. Forgetting can be very frustrating, especially since you are usually aware of forgetting when you really need to remember something — such as when taking an exam — or when you should have done something but the moment has passed — such as getting milk from the store before it closed.

Even though forgetting is natural to most people, if you are fed up with forgetting, there are some techniques you can use to help you remember, such as rehearsal and mnemonics. These techniques will be explained in detail later in this chapter.

Though you don't often think of it as such, forgetting can also be a blessing. For instance, do you really want to remember the pain you experienced in that car accident five years ago? Forgetting allows you to continue your life without giving focus to past painful, embarrassing, stressful, or unhappy experiences. Even so, most people still want to know why they forget. Researchers have come up with various theories to explain this.

Replacement Theory

The replacement theory holds that new information entering the memory replaces old information already stored. Studies that support this theory show that misleading information replaces the original memories of people. For instance, one study showed pictures of a car accident to two groups of people. In one group, the researches asked leading questions to make the people think they had seen a yield sign, when the picture had actually shown a stop sign. Those in the other group were not asked leading questions and therefore remembered seeing the stop sign. When both groups were later gathered together, they were told the purpose behind the experiment and asked to guess if they thought they had been part of the group that was misled. Nearly everyone in the group that was misled claimed that they had truly seen the yield sign and were not deceived. This led researchers to conclude that the implanted memory replaced the actual one.

Decay Theory

The decay theory holds that some memories will dissipate if not retrieved every once in a while from the long-term memory. According to this theory, the formation of a new memory creates what is known as a memory trace, or a change in brain cells. If this memory is not periodically refreshed, the memory trace gradually fades. Why waste space with information you aren't going to use? Fortunately, decay doesn't affect all memories. Many procedural memories will remain in the long-term memory for as long as you live. For instance, even if you haven't ridden a bike in fifteen years, you can still remember how once you get back on. There isn't a specific time limit on when a memory has to be recalled before it decays; some memories will be forgotten the next day, and others may take years to forget.

Memory loss can also be attributed to brain damage. If you were to suffer a blow to the head, the memories stored in that particular area may be lost. Depending upon the type of damage suffered, the memory loss can be either temporary or permanent.

Cue-Dependent Theory

The cue-dependent theory holds that the retrieval of some memories are dependent upon cues that help to locate that information in the brain; if these cues are missing, then you may not be able to remember. Because the mind organizes information based on associations with other things, if you are able to recall an association, that increases your likelihood of recalling the particular information you are seeking. For instance, if you have forgotten the last name of a classmate, cues for remembering may be her first name, where she sat in class with you, her nickname, or even the circumstances surrounding the situation in which you first met her. Without these cues, you may not be able to recall her last name.

Interference Theory

According to interference theory, information within the memory can interfere with other bits of information during storage or retrieval, thus causing you to forget. This can occur when incoming information is similar to information that is already stored, which can cause confusion when later trying to recall the first-stored information. Or vice versa. The formerly learned information can interfere with the recollection of the recently learned information. For instance, if you've recently met two people with similar names, you might confuse the two names later when meeting one of them again. While this may seem like the replacement theory, it is different in that the new information does not replace the old. Both bits of information are still there; they just become confused.

Psychogenic Amnesia Theory

The psychogenic amnesia theory holds that you forget experiences because of the need to escape the feelings associated with a painful, embarrassing, or otherwise unpleasant experience. In essence, you force the memory to the back of your mind so you do not have to face it. However, this doesn't mean that the memory can never be retrieved. Certain cues can be used to retrieve those memories. This concept began with Freud's theory of repression, which is the involuntary act of moving information that is deemed traumatic or threatening into the unconscious so as to avoid dealing with it. Because the person is unaware of the memory stored in the unconscious, he does not recall the events or feelings associated with the experience. In other words, it is blocked from the conscious memory, so the individual forgets it. The repression theory has become a topic of debate among professionals, as you will soon see.

If you tell someone to “forget it,” chances are you have just helped that person to remember. While the information normally may have just resided in short-term memory and then eventually been discarded, your drawing attention to that information may have given it greater meaning and thus helped it to reach the long-term memory.

http://www.netplaces.com/psychology/how-you-remember-why-you-forget/explanations-for-forgetting.htm

 

Theories of Love

5 Ways Psychologists Describe and Explain Love

By Kendra Cherry

Psychologists and researchers have proposed a number of different theories of love. Love is a basic human emotion, but understanding how and why it happens is not necessarily easy. In fact, for a long time, many people suggested that love was simply something that science couldn't understand.

The following are four of the major theories proposed to explain love and other emotional attachments.

Liking vs. Loving

Psychologist Zick Rubin proposed that romantic love is made up of three elements: attachment, caring and intimacy.Attachment is the need to receive care, approval, and physical contact with the other person. Caring involves valuing the other persons needs and happiness as much as your own. Intimacy refers to the sharing of thoughts, desires, and feelings with the other person.

Based upon this definition, Rubin devised a questionnaire to assess attitudes about others and found that these scales of liking and loving provided support for his conception of love.

Compassionate vs. Passionate Love

According to psychologist Elaine Hatfield and her colleagues, there are two basic types of love: compassionate love and passionate love. Compassionate love is characterized by mutual respect, attachment, affection and trust. Compassionate love usually develops out of feelings of mutual understanding and shared respect for one another.

Passionate love is characterized by intense emotions, sexual attraction, anxiety, and affection. When these intense emotions are reciprocated, people feel elated and fulfilled. Unreciprocated love leads to feelings of despondence and despair. Hatfield suggests that passionate love is transitory, usually lasting between 6 and 30 months.

Hatfield also suggests that passionate love arises when cultural expectations encourage falling in love, when the person meets your preconceived ideas of an ideal love, and when you experience heightened physiological arousal in the presence of the other person.

Ideally, passionate love then leads to compassionate love, which is far more enduring. While most people desire relationships that combine the security and stability of compassionate with the intensity of passionate love, Hatfield believes that this is rare.

The Color Wheel Model of Love

In his 1973 book The Colors of Love, John Lee compared styles of love to the color wheel. Just as there are three primary colors, Lee suggested that there are three primary styles of love. These three styles of love are: (1) Eros, (2) Ludos and (3) Storge.

Continuing the color wheel analogy, Lee proposed that just as the primary colors can be combined to create complementary colors, these three primary styles of love could be combined to create nine different secondary love styles. For example, a combination of Eros and Ludos results in Mania, or obsessive love.

Lee’s 6 Styles of Loving

Three primary styles:

1. Eros – Loving an ideal person

2. Ludos – Love as a game

3. Storge – Love as friendship

 

Three secondary styles:

1. Mania (Eros + Ludos) – Obsessive love

2. Pragma (Ludos + Storge) – Realistic and practical love

3. Agape (Eros + Storge) – Selfless love

Triangular Theory of Love

Psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed a triangular theory suggesting that there are three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Different combinations of these three components result in different types of love. For example, a combination of intimacy and commitment results in compassionate love, while a combination of passion and intimacy leads to passionate love.

According to Sternberg, relationships built on two or more elements are more enduring that those based upon a single component. Sternberg uses the term consummate love to describe a combination of intimacy, passion and commitment. While this type of love is the strongest and most enduring, Sternberg suggests that this type of love is rare.

http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/theoriesoflove.htm

 

Loneliness

Loneliness should not be equated with a fear of being alone. Everyone has times when they are alone for situational reasons, or because they have chosen to be alone. Being alone can be experienced as positive, pleasurable, and emotionally refreshing if it is under the individual's control. Solitude is the state of being alone and secluded from other people, and often implies having made a conscious choice to be alone. Loneliness is therefore unwilling solitude.

Understanding Loneliness

Loneliness is an emotional state in which a person experiences a powerful feeling of emptiness and isolation. Loneliness is more than just the feeling of wanting company or wanting to do something with another person. Loneliness is a feeling of being cut off, disconnected, and/or alienated from other people, so that it feels difficult or even impossible to have any form of meaningful human contact. Lonely people often feel empty or hollow inside.

Being alone and lonely, and even just the fear of being alone, make many people insecure, anxious and depressed. If you fear being alone you may become over needy of other people and feel as if you must be around people at all times. While we all, to varying degrees, need people in our life, if you feel you must have people around all the time then this need is controlling you.

What is meant by "being alone" means different things to different people. It is critical to evaluate what makes up your fear and to what degree this fear controls you and your behavior. For example, it is important to note if there are any social elements to the fear, is the fear related to personal violence concerns, and is the focus on one particular person or type of person rather than on the need to have another human being in close proximity.

Clinical and research evidence supports the fact that all too often one of the main reasons that both men and women get into a relationship, and then often stay in a relationship, is related to a fear of being alone. And as any good counselor knows, a relationship that is based on fear is destined to be a very unhappy and unfulfilling relationship. Until a person can learn to enjoy their own company, they may constantly find themselves lonely or getting into relationships that are, or end up, based on fear. All too often, people who are not comfortable with themselves unknowingly stop themselves from not only being the best person they can be but from experiencing deep levels of intimacy with others as well.

At the extreme, the fear of being alone is known by a number of names - Autophobia, Isolaphobia, and Monophobia. This fear of being alone often significantly impacts on a person's quality of life. It can cause panic attacks, keep people apart from loved ones and business associates, and play total havoc with a person's life. Symptoms typically include shortness of breath, rapid breathing, irregular heartbeat, sweating, nausea, and overall feelings of dread, although everyone experiences being alone fear in their own way and may have different symptoms.

Effects of Loneliness

The effects of loneliness and the fear of being alone can lead to anxiety, panic attacks, phobias, depression, suicide, drug addiction, alcohol addiction, and acute and chronic illness. Chronic loneliness (as opposed to the normal loneliness everyone feels from time to time) can be a serious condition and has been associated with an increased risk of death from cancer as well as stroke and cardiovascular disease. People who are socially isolated also report poor sleep quality and thus have diminished restorative processes.

What causes of loneliness and a fear of being alone?

People can experience loneliness for many reasons, and many life events are related to loneliness. Loneliness is a very common response to divorce or the breakup/loss of any important long-term relationship. In these cases it may stem both from the loss of a specific person, as well as from the withdrawal from social circles caused by the event or the associated sadness.

Loneliness can be a response to a specific situation or event, such as the death or extended absence of a loved one. Loneliness may also occur after the birth of a child, after marriage or after any minor or major life event. Loneliness can occur in marriages or similar close relationships where there is anger/resentment or a lack of "loving" communication.

The fear of being alone can be caused by many different things. Maybe you were, or felt, abandoned at some time in life and came to associate being alone with being unloved or neglected. A fear of being alone can be directly related to lack of self-confidence and to the belief that activities cannot be enjoyed or even attempted if you are alone.

Or maybe you just never learned to be comfortable while alone. Like anything in life, what has been learned can be altered. You can learn to be better at being alone without being lonely so that you have the choice of whether to be with others or not. And when you overcome the fear of being alone, you instantly become more independent and confident as a result. In fact, there are many advantages to overcoming fear of loneliness. When you are alone you have time to think calmly and there is a special kind of peace you can experience only when alone. Time spent alone sometimes can also make time spent with others even more enjoyable. Remember that being alone doesn't have to mean being lonely.

Treatment of Loneliness

The alternative to viewing loneliness and the fear of being alone as a defect or as an unalterable personality characteristic is to recognize that loneliness is something that can be changed. It is also important to know that loneliness and the fear of being alone are common experiences. According to a recent national survey, 25% of all adults experience painful loneliness at least every few weeks, and the incidence among adolescents and college students is even higher. Loneliness is neither a permanent state nor "bad" in itself. Instead it should be viewed more accurately as a signal or indicator of important needs that are going unmet.

The first step is to admit that you have a problem with being alone and that you would like to feel and behave differently. Remember, we all have strengths and weakness and hiding your weaknesses takes up more energy than it does to work to overcome them or learn to live with them.

The most frequently used form of therapy is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), reality therapy and behavioral therapy. Working with an experienced psychologist, therapist, or counselor you can learn new behavioral approaches, new relationship and communication skills, and specific techniques to help you deal with anxiety and depression.

Relaxation and stress relief techniques are frequently an accompaniment to other therapeutic approaches. Relaxation techniques may include things like specific ways of breathing, muscle relaxation training, guided mental imagery, or soothing self-talk. Associating these relaxation techniques with being alone can help you deal with, and overcome, feelings of loneliness, depression and anxiety.

Medication can also be used. While they do not "cure" the fears of being alone, they can temporarily suppress the symptoms through chemical interaction.

Another treatment for both loneliness and depression, especially in the elderly, is pet therapy, or animal-assisted therapy as it is more formally known. Some studies and surveys, as well as anecdotal evidence provided by volunteer and community organizations, indicate that the presence of animal companions can ease feelings of depression and loneliness. According to the Centers for Disease Control, there are a number of health benefits associated with pet ownership.

http://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/relationships_psychologist/psychologist_loneliness.htm

Psychotherapy

By Leonard Holmes

Updated November 25, 2003

The terms counseling and psychotherapy sometimes cause confusion - for both professionals and lay people. What are they? What's the difference?

Steadman's Medical Dictionary defines psychotherapy as:

treatment of emotional, behavioral, personality, and psychiatric disorders based primarily upon verbal or nonverbal communication with the patient, in contrast to treatments utilizing chemical and physical measures and it defines counseling as:

A professional relationship and activity in which one person endeavors to help another to understand and to solve his or her adjustment problems; the giving of advice, opinion, and instruction to direct the judgment or conduct of another.Stedman's Electronic Medical Dictionary, 1994

These definitions help draw a clear distinction, but they don't really capture the essence of either procedure, psychotherapy in particular.

Lewis Wolberg, in his massive work The Technique of Psychotherapy, provides us with this definition:

Psychotherapy is the treatment, by psychological means, of problems of an emotional nature in which a trained person deliberately establishes a professional relationship with the patient with the object of (1) removing, modifying, or retarding existing symptoms, (2) mediating disturbed patterns of behavior, and (3) promoting positive personality growth and development. (Wolberg, 1977)

The first recorded psychotherapy patient is referred to as "Anna O." She was treated by Josef Breuer through a "talking cure" in the early 1880s. Breuer told his friend Sigmund Freud about the technique, and he later adopted it with some of his own patients.

Freudian psychoanalysis has been criticized by many because of its tendency to create long-term dependent relationships. Psychoanalysis attempts to "get to the root of the problem" by analyzing the "transference" relationship which develops between the therapist and patient. This is a lengthy process, typically taking several years. There are some recent models of psychoanalytically-oriented brief therapy. The focus in these therapies is narrower, and the work focuses more on the problem at hand than on the root of the problem.

Other schools of psychotherapy have a different focus. Behavior therapy focuses on changing behavior. B. F. Skinner is sometimes seen as the father of behaviorism. Behavior modification focuses on setting up rewards and punishments in order to shape someone's behavior. Behavioral treatment can involve relaxation training, desensitization of phobias and biofeedback.

Cognitive therapy seeks to help people change how they think about things. Albert Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy is an example of this. Ellis considers strong emotions to result from an interaction between events in the environment and beliefs and expectations which we have. Some of these beliefs are too strong or rigid (such as the belief "Everyone should like me."). The patient or client learns to modify the belief so that it is less extreme and less likely to get in the way (such as "I like for people to like me, but I realize that not everyone is going to.").

Much psychotherapy is not limited to a particular school. Many therapists are trained in several different approaches. They then take techniques from these approaches which fit their own style and personality. It has been difficult to research the effectiveness of psychotherapy, since the term can refer to so many different activities. It is often used along with medications to treat mental disorders.

There are many other ways to look at psychotherapy. Psychotherapy consists of two (or more) people sitting in a room talking. At least one of these people is trained in helping people change. At least one has something about their life that they want to change.

References:

Stedman's Electronic Medical Dictionary, New York:Williams and Wilkins Co, 1994. (based on Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 1990)

Wolberg, Lewis R. (1977) The Technique of Psychotherapy. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1977, p3, http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/psychotherapy/a/psychotherapy.htm

PART III.

GLOSSARY

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

1. Anamnesis, n. (анамнез) — recollection, especially of a supposed previous existence; a patient’s account of their medical history.

2. Association, n. (ассоциация) — a mental connection between things.

3. Attention, n. (внимание) — notice taken of someone or something; the regarding of someone or something as interesting or important; the mental faculty of considering or taking notice of someone or something.

4. Behaviour, n. (поведение) — the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially towards others; the way in which an animal or person behaves in response to a particular situation or stimulus.

5. Case study, n. (психологическое исследование конкретного объекта, случая) — a process or record of research into the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time; a particular instance of something used or analysed in order to illustrate a thesis or principle.

6. Character, n. (характер) — the particular combination of qualities in a person or place that makes them different from others.

7. Classical conditioning, n. (выработка условного рефлекса по методу Павлова) — a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

8. Cognition, n. (когнитивная способность, познание) — the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

9. Consciousness, n. (сознание) — the state of being aware of and responsive to one’s surroundings; a person’s awareness or perception of something; the fact of awareness by the mind of itself and the world.

10. Distress, n. (дистресс, душевное страдание, несчастье) — extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain.

11. Emotion, n. (эмоции) — a strong feeling deriving from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.

12. Environment, n. (окружение, окружающая среда) — the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates; the setting or conditions in which a particular activity is carried on.

13. Free association, n. (свободные ассоциации) — the mental process by which one word or image may spontaneously suggest another without any necessary logical connection; a psychoanalytic technique for investigation of the unconscious mind, in which a relaxed subject reports all passing thoughts without reservation.

14. Gestalt, n. (гештальт) — an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts.

15. Hysteria, n. (истерия) — exaggerated or uncontrollable emotion or excitement; an old-fashioned term for a psychological disorder characterized by conversion of psychological stress into physical symptoms (somatization) or a change in self-awareness.

16. Imagination, n. (воображение) — the faculty or action of forming new ideas, or images or concepts of external objects not present to the senses.

17. Interaction, n. (взаимодействие) — reciprocal action or influence.

18. Interpretation, n. (интерпретация) — the action of explaining the meaning of something; an explanation or way of explaining.

19. Interview, n. (интервью) — a meeting of people face to face, especially for consultation.

20. Introspection, n. (интроспекция, самонаблюдение) — the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.

21. Longitudinal study, n. (лонгитюдное исследование) — a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time — often many decades.

22. Memory, n. (память) — the ability to remember information, experiences and people; process of reproducing or recalling what has been learned and retained especially through associative mechanisms.

23. Mental health, n. (психическое здоровье) — a level of psychological well-being, or an absence of a mental disorder.

24. Mental processes (mental functions, cognitive processes), n. (психические процессы, когнитивные функции) — such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, creativity, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion—in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.

25. Mind, n. (разум, умственные способности) — the element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness and thought; a person’s ability to think and reason; the intellect.

26. Motivation, n. (мотивация) — a reason or reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way.

27. Neurosis, n. (невроз) — a relatively mild mental illness that is not caused by organic disease, involving symptoms of stress (depression, anxiety, obsessive behaviour, hypochondria) but not a radical loss of touch with reality.

28. Perception, n. (восприятие) — the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses; awareness of something through the senses; the neurophysiological processes, including memory, by which an organism becomes aware of and interprets external stimuli.

29. Person, n. (личность) — a human being regarded as an individual.

30. Personality, n. (индивидуальность) — the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character

31. Phenomenology, n. (феноменология) — the science of phenomena as distinct from that of the nature of being; an approach that concentrates on the study of consciousness and the objects of direct experience.

32. Prospective, adj. (предполагаемый, ожидаемый) — expected or expecting to be the specified thing in the future.

33. Psychogenesis, n. (психогенез) — the psychological cause to which a mental illness or behavioural disturbance may be attributed (as distinct from a physical cause).

34. Psychologist, n. (психолог) — an expert or specialist in psychology.

35. Psychology, n. (психология) — the scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behaviour, or the influence of a particular person's character on their behaviour.

36. Psychosis, n. (психоз) — a severe mental disorder in which thought and emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with external reality.

37. Psychotherapy, n. (психотерапия) — the treatment of mental disorder by psychological rather than medical means.

38. Reasoning, n. (рассуждение, умозаключение) — the action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way.

39. Reinforcement, n. (подкрепление) — the action or process of reinforcing or strengthening; the process of encouraging or establishing a belief or pattern of behaviour.

40. Relationship, n. (отношения) — the way in which two or more people or things are connected, or the state of being connected; the way in which two or more people or groups regard and behave towards each other; an emotional and sexual association between two people.

41. Repression, n. (подавление) — the restraint, prevention, or inhibition of a feeling, quality, etc.; the action or process of suppressing a thought or desire in oneself so that it remains unconscious.

42. Retrospective, adj. (ретроспективный, относящийся к прошлому) — looking back on or dealing with past events or situations.

43. Self, n. (личность, сущность) — a person’s essential being that distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or reflexive action; one’s particular nature or personality; the qualities that make one individual or unique; one’s own interests or pleasure.

44. Self-actualization, n. (самоактуализация) — the realization or fulfilment of one’s talents and potentialities, especially considered as a drive or need present in everyone.

45. Self-awareness, n. (самосознание) — conscious knowledge of one’s own character, feelings, motives, and desires.

46. Self-identity, n. (самоидентификация) — the recognition of one’s potential and qualities as an individual, especially in relation to social context.

47. Self-report, n. (самоотчет) — provide details about (one’s circumstances, typically one’s medical or psychological condition).

48. Sensation, n. (ощущение) — a physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body.

49. Sexuality, n. (сексуальность) — capacity for sexual feelings; a person’s sexual orientation or preference; sexual activity.

50. Society, n. (общество) — the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community.

51. Somatization, n. (соматизация, психосоматика) — the manifestation of psychological distress by the presentation of bodily symptoms.

52. Speech, n. (речь) — the expression of or the ability to express thoughts and feelings by articulate sounds.

53. Stimulus, n. (стимул) — a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue; a thing that arouses activity or energy in someone or something; a spur or incentive.

54. Temperament, n. (темперамент) — a person’s or animal’s nature, especially as it permanently affects their behaviour.

55. Thinking, n. (мышление) — the process of considering or reasoning about something; a person’s ideas or opinions.

56. Unconsciousness, n. (бессознательное) — the state of being unconscious; the state of being uninformed or unaware.

57. Well-being, n. (благополучие) — the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. Analytical psychology, n. (аналитическая психология) — the psychoanalytical system of psychology developed and practised by Carl Gustav Jung.

2. Applied psychology, n. (прикладная психология) — the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law.

3. Behaviourism (behavioral psychology), n. (бихевиоризм) — the theory that human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behaviour patterns; treatment involving the practical application of the theory of behaviourism.

4. Biopsychology, n. (биопсихология) — the branch of psychology concerned with its biological and physiological aspects.

5. Clinical psychology, n. (клиническая психология) — the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness and behavioural problems.

6. Cognitive psychology, n. (когнитивная психология) — a branch of psychology investigates internal mental processes, such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language (how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn).

7. Depth psychology, n. (глубинная психология) — the study of unconscious mental processes and motives, especially in psychoanalytic theory and practice.

8. Developmental psychology, n. (возрастная психология) — the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that a person experiences over the course of his/her life span.

9. Educational psychology, n. (педагогическая психология) — a branch of psychology that studies children in an educational setting and is concerned with teaching and learning methods, cognitive development, and aptitude assessment.

10. Ego-psychology, n. (эго-психология) — a system of psychoanalytic developmental psychology concerned especially with personality.

11. Evolutionary psychology, n. (эволюционная психология) — an approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective.

12. Existentialism, n. (экзистенциализм) — a philosophical theory or approach which emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will.

13. Experimental psychology, n. (экспериментальная психология) — the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific investigation of the responses of individuals to stimuli in controlled situations.

14. Functionalism, n. (функционализм) — the theory that mental states can be sufficiently defined by their cause, their effect on other mental states, and their effect on behaviour.

15. Gestalt psychology, n. (гештальт психология) — a movement in psychology founded in Germany in 1912, seeking to explain perceptions in terms of gestalts rather than by analysing their constituents.

16. Metapsychology, n. (метапсихология, философия психологии) — the study of mental processes and the mind-body relationship, beyond what can be studied experimentally.

17. Neuropsychology, n. (нейропсихология) — the study of the relationship between behaviour, emotion, and cognition on the one hand, and brain function on the other.

18. Occupational psychology, n. (психология профессиональной деятельности) — the study of human behaviour at work, including methods of selecting personnel, improving productivity, and coping with stress.

19. Psychoanalysis, n. (психоанализ) — a system of psychological theory and therapy which aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association.

20. Psychodynamics, n. (психодинамика) — the interrelation of the unconscious and conscious mental and emotional forces that determine personality and motivation; the branch of psychology that deals with psychodynamics.

21. Psychographics, n. (психография) — the study and classification of people according to their attitudes, aspirations, and other psychological criteria, especially in market research.

22. Psychometrics, n. (психометрия) — the science of measuring mental capacities and processes.

23. Psychopathology, n. (психопатология) — the scientific study of mental disorders; features of people’s mental health considered collectively; mental or behavioural disorder.

24. Psychopharmacology, n. (психофармакология) — the branch of psychology concerned with the effects of drugs on the mind and behaviour.

25. Psychophysics, n. (психофизика) — the branch of psychology that deals with the relations between physical stimuli and mental phenomena.

26. Social psychology, n. (социальная психология) — the branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual.

27. Structuralism, n. (структурализм) — a method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behaviour, culture, and experience, which focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a conceptual system; the doctrine that structure is more important than function. Originating in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure, and extended into anthropology by Claude Lévi-Strauss, structuralism was adapted to a wide range of social and cultural studies, especially in the 1960s, by writers such as Roland Barthes, Louis Althusser, and Jacques Lacan.

BRAIN. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Action potential, n. (потенциал действия) — the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

2. Afferent nerve, n. (афферентный, чувствительный нерв) — A nerve conveying impulses from the periphery to the central nervous system.

3. Autonomic nervous system, n. (вегетативная нервная система) — the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.

4. Axon, n. (аксон) — the long thread-like part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells.

5. Blood–brain barrier, n. (гематоэнцефалический барьер) — a semipermeable membrane separating the blood from the cerebrospinal fluid, and constituting a barrier to the passage of cells, particles, and large molecules.

6. Brain stem, n. (ствол мозга) — the central trunk of the mammalian brain, consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain, and continuing downwards to form the spinal cord.

7. Cell body (soma), n. (тело клетки, сома) — in neurons, the main part of the cell around the nucleus excluding long processes such as axons and dendrites.

8. Central nervous system, n. (центральная нервная система) — the complex of nerve tissues that controls the activities of the body. In vertebrates it comprises the brain and spinal cord.

9. Dendrite, n. (дендрит) — a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.

10. Efferent nerve, n.(эфферентный, двигательный нерв) — a nerve conveying impulses from the central nervous system to the periphery.

11. Endorphin, n. (эндорфин) — any of a group of hormones secreted within the brain and nervous system and having a number of physiological functions. They are peptides which activate the body’s opiate receptors, causing an analgesic effect.

12. GABA, n. (ГАМК, гамма-аминомасляная кислота) — gamma-aminobutyric acid; an amino acid which acts to inhibit the transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system.

13. Ganglion, n. (ганглий, нервный узел) — a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fibre.

14. Glia (glia cell, neuroglia), n. (глия) — the connective tissue of the nervous system, consisting of several different types of cell associated with neurons.

15. Hippocampus, n. (гиппокамп) — the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain, thought to be the centre of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.

16. Hormone, n. (гормон) — a regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action.

17. Hypothalamus, n. (гипоталамус) — a region of the forebrain below the thalamus which coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.

18. Interneuron (interneurone), n. (промежуточный нейрон) — a neuron which transmits impulses between other neurons, especially as part of a reflex arc.

19. Limbic system, n. (лимбическая система) — a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain, involving several areas near the edge of the cortex concerned with instinct and mood. It controls the basic emotions (fear, pleasure, anger) and drives (hunger, sex, dominance, care of offspring).

20. Melatonin, n. (мелатонин) — a hormone secreted by the pineal gland which inhibits melanin formation and is thought to be concerned with regulating the reproductive cycle.

21. Motor neuron, n. (мотонейрон, двигательный нейрон) — a nerve cell forming part of a pathway along which impulses pass from the brain or spinal cord to a muscle or gland.

22. Myelin, n. (миелин) — a mixture of proteins and phospholipids forming a whitish insulating sheath around many nerve fibres, which increases the speed at which impulses are conducted.

23. Nerve fibre, n. (нервное волокно) — the axon of a neuron. A nerve is formed of a bundle of many such fibres, with their sheaths.

24. Nerve impulse, n. (нервный импульс) — a signal transmitted along a nerve fibre. It consists of a wave of electrical depolarization that reverses the potential difference across the nerve cell membranes.

25. Nervous system, n. (нервная система) — the network of nerve cells and fibres which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

26. Neuron, n. (нейрон) — a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.

27. Neurotransmitter, n. (нейромедиатор) — a chemical substance which is released at the end of a nerve fibre by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, effects the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fibre, a muscle fibre, or some other structure.

28. Parasympathetic, adj. (парасимпатический) — relating to the part of the autonomic nervous system which balances the action of the sympathetic nerves. It consists of nerves arising from the brain and the lower end of the spinal cord and supplying the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands.

29. Peripheral nervous system, n. (периферическая нервная система) — the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.

30. Receptor, n. (рецептор) — an organ or cell able to respond to light, heat, or other external stimulus and transmit a signal to a sensory nerve; a region of tissue, or a molecule in a cell membrane, which responds specifically to a particular neurotransmitter, hormone, antigen, or other substance.

31. Reflex, n. (рефлекс) — an action that is performed without conscious thought as a response to a stimulus.

32. Reflex arc, n. (рефлекторная дуга) — the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action, including at its simplest a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse between.

33. Resting potential, n. (потенциал покоя) — the electrical potential of a neuron or other excitable cell relative to its surroundings when not stimulated or involved in passage of an impulse.

34. Reticular formation (reticular activating system), n. (ретикулярная формация) — a diffuse network of nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness.

35. Reuptake, n. (обратный захват) — the absorption by a presynaptic nerve ending of a neurotransmitter that it has secreted.

36. Sensory neuron, n. (афферентный нейрон, сенсорный нейрон, чувствительный нейрон) — a nerve cell that receives messages from the environment or outer part of the body and carries them to the brain or spinal cord/

37. Serotonin, n. (серотонин) — a compound present in blood platelets and serum, which constricts the blood vessels and acts as a neurotransmitter; a chemical in the body that helps carry messages from the brain and is believed to make you feel happy.

38. Spinal cord, n. (спинной мозг) — the cylindrical bundle of nerve fibres and associated tissue which is enclosed in the spine and connects nearly all parts of the body to the brain, with which it forms the central nervous system.

39. Sympathetic, adj. (симпатический) — relating to or denoting the part of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerves arising from ganglia near the middle part of the spinal cord, supplying the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands, and balancing the action of the parasympathetic nerves.

40. Synapse, n. (синапс) — a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.

41. Association, n. (ассоциация) — a mental connection between things.

42. Biofeedback, n. (биологическая обратная связь) — a method by which a person learns to control their heart rate or other physical or mental processes by using information from recordings of those processes

43. Brain, n. (мозг) — an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the coordinating centre of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity.

44. Cerebellum, n. (мозжечок) — the part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates, which coordinates and regulates muscular activity.

45. Cerebrum, n. (головной мозг) — the principal and most anterior part of the brain in vertebrates, located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left and right, separated by a fissure. It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the body.

46. Cognition, n. (когнитивная способность, познание) — the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

47. Dopamine, n. (дофамин) — a compound present in the body as a neurotransmitter and a precursor of other substances including adrenalin.

48. Electroencephalogram, n. (электроэнцефалограмма) — a test or record of brain activity produced by electroencephalography.

49. Emotion, n. (эмоции) — a strong feeling deriving from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.

50. Frontal lobe, n. (лобная доля мозга) — each of the paired lobes of the brain lying immediately behind the forehead, including areas concerned with behaviour, learning, personality, and voluntary movement.

51. Grey matter, n. (серое вещество) — the darker tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting mainly of nerve cell bodies and branching dendrites.

52. Hemisphere (cerebral hemisphere), n. (полушария головного мозга) — each of the two parts of the cerebrum (left and right) in the brain of a vertebrate.

53. Imagination, n. (воображение) — the faculty or action of forming new ideas, or images or concepts of external objects not present to the senses.

54. Left brain, n. (левое полушарие) — the left-hand side of the human brain, which is believed to be associated with linear and analytical thought.

55. Medulla oblongata, n. (продолговатый мозг) — the continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centres for the heart and lungs.

56. Memory, n. (память) — the ability to remember information, experiences and people; process of reproducing or recalling what has been learned and retained especially through associative mechanisms.

57. Motor cortex, n. (двигательная зона коры головного мозга) — the part of the cerebral cortex in the brain in which originate the nerve impulses that initiate voluntary muscular activity.

58. Neuropsychology, n. (нейропсихология) — the study of the relationship between behaviour, emotion, and cognition on the one hand, and brain function on the other.

59. Occipital lobe, n. (затылочная доля головного мозга) — the rearmost lobe in each cerebral hemisphere of the brain.

60. Parietal lobe, n. (теменная доля головного мозга) — either of the paired lobes of the brain at the top of the head, including areas concerned with the reception and correlation of sensory information.

61. Perception, n. (восприятие) — the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses; awareness of something through the senses; the neurophysiological processes, including memory, by which an organism becomes aware of and interprets external stimuli.

62. Plasticity, n. (пластичность, приспособляемость) — the capacity of the brain to change its structure and function within certain limits; plasticity underlies brain functions such as learning and allows the brain to generate normal, healthy responses to long-lasting environmental changes.

63. Reasoning, n. (рассуждение, умозаключение) — the action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way.

64. Right brain, n. (правое полушарие) — the right-hand side of the human brain, which is believed to be associated with creative thought and the emotions.

65. Sensation, n. (ощущение) — a physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body.

66. Speech, n. (речь) — the expression of or the ability to express thoughts and feelings by articulate sounds.

67. Temporal lobe, n. (височная доля головного мозга) — each of the paired lobes of the brain lying beneath the temples, including areas concerned with the understanding of speech.

68. Thalamus, n. (таламус) — either of two masses of grey matter lying between the cerebral hemispheres on either side of the third ventricle, relaying sensory information and acting as a centre for pain perception.

69. Thinking, n. (мышление) — the process of considering or reasoning about something; a person’s ideas or opinions.

70. White matter, n. (белое вещество) — the paler tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting mainly of nerve fibres with their myelin sheaths.

 

LOVE. FAMILY

1. Affection n (привязанность, любовь) a warm gentle feeling of caring for or loving sb/sth; fondness

2. Ancestor n (предок) any of the people from whom sb is descended

3. Ascribe v (приписывать) to consider or declare sth to be caused by, written by or belonging to sb/sth

4. Attachment n (привязанность, прикрепление) the action of attaching or the fact of being attached; a thing that is or can be attached; affection

5. Backbone n (главная опора) the chief support of a system or an organization

6. Behaviour n (поведение) the way sb. behaves, esp. towards other people; one’s attitude and manners

7. Birth n (рождение) the coming of young from out of the mother’s body; the process of being born

8. Blended family (смешанная семья) is made up of the natural mother or father, a stepmother or stepfather and children of one or both of the parents

9. Blood n (происхождение) family or race

10. Brother n (брат) a man or boy having the same parents as another person

11. Children n pl (дети) young persons from birth to the age of full physical development; boys or girls

12. Credulous adj (легковерный) too ready to believe things

13. Daughter n (дочь) one’s female child

14. Divorce n (развод) the legal ending of a marriage

15. Ethnic adj (этнический) of or involving a nation, race or tribe that has a common cultural tradition

16. Family n (семья) a group consisting of one or two parents and their children

17. Feeling n (чувство) a thing that is felt through the mind or the senses

18. Financial commitment (финансовое обязательство) commitment concerning money and finance

19. Friendship n (дружба) the feeling or relationship that friends have; the state of being friends

20. Generation n (поколение) all people born at about the same time

21. Grandparent n (бабушка, дедушка) the mother or father of either of one’s parents

22. Gullible adj (легковерный) willing to believe anything or anyone; easily deceived

23. Husband n (муж) a man to whom a woman is married

24. Infatuation n (сильное увлечение) the state of being infatuated; a foolish passion

25. Inheritance n (наследственность) the action of inheriting sth from sb; a thing that is inherited

26. Intercourse n (общение) dealings with people, nations, etc.

27. Life cycle (expectancy) (жизненный цикл) the number of years that a person is likely to live; the length of time that sth is likely to exist or function

28. Love n (любовь) a strong feeling of deep affection for sb/sth; sexual affection or passion

29. Marriage n (брак) a formal, usu legally recognized, agreement between a man and a woman making them husband and wife

30. Marry v (выходить замуж, жениться) to take sb as a husband or wife

31. Maturation n (зрелость) the process of becoming or being made mature

32. Mother-in-law n (свекровь) the mother of a wife or husband

33. Obedient adj (послушный) doing what one is told to do; willing to obey

34. Parent (родитель) a father or a mother

35. Peer group (равный, ровня) a group of people of approximately the same age or status

36. Preschooler n (дошкольник) a child young enough to go to school

37. Protect v (защищать) to keep sb/sth safe from harm, injury, etc.

38. Race n (раса, род) any of the groups into which humans can be divided according to their physical characteristics, eg colour of skin, colour and type of hair, shape of eyes and nose; a group of people who have the same culture, history, language, etc.

39. Rearing n (воспитание) the process of caring for young children or animals, etc. until they are fully grown

40. Relationship n (родство) links, contacts or dealing between people, groups or countries; the state of being related by birth or marriage

41. Religion n (религия) belief in the existence of a god or gods, esp the belief that they created the universe and gave human beings a spiritual nature which continues to exist after the death of the body

42. Reproduction n (репродукция, воспроизведение) the action or process of reproducing sth or being reproduced; the process of producing young

43. Responsibility n (ответственность) the state or fact of being responsible; a duty for which a person is responsible

44. Retirement n (отставка) the event of retiring or state of having retired from work

45. Security n (безопасность) freedom or protection from danger or worry; measures taken to guarantee the safety of a country, person, thing of value, etc.

46. Schoolchildren pl (школьники) children attending school

47. Siblings pl (дети в одной семье) each of two or more people with the same parents; a brother or sister

48. Single-parent family (семья с одним родителем) is a household in which only one parent lives with a child or children

49. Socialization n (социализация) the process of becoming socialized

50. Social class (социальный класс) of or in society; of or concerning rank and position within society

51. Social function (социальная функция) of or in society; a special activity or a purpose of a person

52. Society n (общество) a system in which people live together in organized communities; people in general; a community of people living in a particular country or region and having shared customs, laws, organizations, etc.

53. Son n (сын) a male child of a parent

54. Spouse n (супруг, супруга) a husband or wife

55. Stepmother n (мачеха) the woman whom one’s father has married after one’s father and mother have divorced or one’s mother has died

56. Stepfather n (отчим) the man whom one’s mother has married after one’s mother and father have divorced or one’s father has died

57. Support n (поддержка) help or encouragement given to sb/sth

58. Teenager n (подросток) a person between 13 and 19 years old

59. Toddler n (ребенок до двух лет) a child who has only recently learnt to walk

60. Wife n (жена) a married woman

STRESS

1. Aggression n (агрессия) violent or hostile feelings or behaviour

2. Alarm n (тревога) fear or anxiety that is felt when danger or bad news is expected

3. Ambitious adj (амбициозный, честолюбивый) actively seeking success, wealth, status, etc.; demanding a lot of effort, money, etc to succeed

4. Anger n (гнев) a strong feeling of annoyance and hostility

5. Anxiety n (беспокойство, тревога) a nervous feeling caused by fear that sth bad is going to happened

6. Approach-approach conflict (конфликт типа приближение-приближение) the situation in which the individual must choose between two attractive alternatives

7. Avoidance-avoidance conflict (конфликт типа избежание-избежание) the situation in which the individual must choose between two unattractive alternatives

8. Biofeedback n (биологическая обратная связь) a training technique in which various bodily functions, such as heart rate, skin temperature, muscle tension, and brain activity are monitored so that people can learn to control them voluntarily so as to improve their health and physical performance

9. Conflict n (конфликт) a serious disagreement; an argument; a struggle; a fight; a serious difference of opinions, wishes, etc

10. Consciousness n (сознание) the state of being conscious

11. Cope with v (справляться) to deal successfully with sth difficult

12. Culture n (культура) the customs, arts, social institutions, etc of a particular group or nation

13. Death n (смерть) an act of dying or being killed; the end of life; the state of being dead

14. Denial n (отрицание, отказ) the statement that sth is not true; a refusal to give or allow sth that sb has a right to expect

15. Depression n (депрессия) the state of being depressed

16. Disappointment n (разочарование, досада) the state of being disappointed

17. Disease n (болезнь) illness of the body, of the mind, caused by infection or internal disorder

18. Distress n (утомление, горе, стресс) great pain, sorrow, suffering, etc; negative stress

19. Disturbance n (нарушение покоя) the action of disturbing sb/sth or the process of being disturbed

20. Eustress n (положительный стресс, стресс как положительная сила, которая делает организм готовым к оптимальному режиму работы) positive stress

21. Exhaustion n (истощение, изнурение) the state of being extremely tired; total loss of strength

22. Effect n (следствие) result

23. Fantasy n (фантазия, воображение) imagination; an idea that is wild or not realistic

24. Fear n (страх) an unpleasant feeling caused by the possibility of danger, pain, a threat, etc

25. Feel v (чувствовать) to explore or perceive sth by touching it or by holding it in the hands; to be aware of or experience sth physical or emotional; to have the sensation of sth

26. Frustration n (расстройство) the feeling of being frustrated; a disappointment

27. Harmful adj (вредный) causing harm

28. Heal v (излечивать, исцелять, заживать) to become or make sth healthy again

29. Health n (здоровье) the state of being well and free from illness in body or mind

30. Holistic adj (холистический) having regard to the whole of sth rather than just to parts of it; emphasizing the importance of the whole and the interdependence of its parts; treating the whole person rather than just the symptoms of a disease

31. Impact n (влияние) influence

32. Measure n (мера) an action taken to achieve a purpose; v (измерять, мерить) to judge the extent or value of sth

33. Meditation n (медитация) the action or practice of meditating

34. Mental adj (умственный, психический) of, in or for the mind; relating to illnesses of the mind and their treatment; mad

35. Perception n (восприятие) the ability to see, hear or understand things; awareness

36. Physical adj (физический) of or for the body

37. Progressive adj (прогрессивный) happening or developing steadily

38. Reaction n (реакция, ответ) a response to a situation, an act, an influence, etc.; a physical response, usu a bad one, to a drug, chemical substance, etc

39. Relaxation n (отдых) rest and enjoyment, an action of relaxing sth

40. Resistance n (сопротивление) the action of using force to opposite sth/sb

41. Response n (ответ) an action or feeling produced in answer to sth; a reaction

42. Retirement n (отставка) the event of retiring or state of having retired from work; the period of one’s life after one has retired

43. Self-defense n (самозащита) the defense of one’s body, actions, rights, etc

44. Social adj (социальный, общественный) concerning the organization of and relations between people and communities; of or in society

45. Source n (источник) a place from which sth comes or is obtained

46. Stressor n (стрессор) a stress-producing event or situation

47. Stress n (стресс) pressure, tension or worry resulting from problems in one’s life

48. Strive v (стараться, стремиться) to try very hard or for a long time to obtain or achieve sth

49. Symptom n (симптом) a change in the body that indicates an illness; a sign of the existence of sth bad

50. Tension n (напряжение) the state of being stretched tight or the extent to which sth is stretched tight; mental, emotional or nervous strain; anxiety

51. Training n (тренировка) the process of preparing sb or being prepared for a sport or job

52. Withdrawal n (уход) departure

53. Worry n (беспокойство, тревога) anxiety

PSYCHOTHERAPY

1. Acupuncture n (акупунктура, иглоукалывание) the method of inserting very thin needdles into the skin as a treatment for various diseases or to relieve pain

2. Apathetic adj (апатичный) showing or feeling apathy

3. Authentic adj (подлинный, достоверный) known to be true or genuine

4. Background n (воспитание, происхождение, окружение) a person’s social class, family status, level of education; a person’s past experience, work, type of education, training, etc

5. Burden n (бремя) a thing or a person that is carried; a load, esp a heavy one; a duty, an obligation, a responsibility, etc that is not wanted or causes trouble

6. Commitment n (обязательство) a thing one has promised to do; the action of committing sb/sth or of being committed.

7. Goal n (цель) the object of one’s efforts; a target

8. Devastation n (опустошение, разорение) great destruction

9. Disturbance n (нарушение покоя) the action of disturbing sb/sth or the process of being disturbed

10. Distraught adj (обезумевший) very sad or upset

11. Equilibrium n (равновесие) the state of being physically balanced; a state of mind in which feelings and emotions are under control

12. Interact v (взаимодействовать) to act or have an affect on each other; to work together or communicate

13. Motivate v (побуждать, побудить) to be the reason for sb’s action; to cause sb to act in a particular way; to stimulate the interest of sb; to cause sb to want to do sth

14. Patient n (пациент) a person who is receiving medical treatment

15. Placebo effect (плацебо эффект) the effect of taking a placebo and feeling better (placebo – a substance that has no physical effect, used when testing new drugs or given to a patient whose illness is imaginary)

16. Procedure n (процедура) a formal or official order or way of doing things; a series of actions that need to be completed in order to achieve sth

17. Psychoanalysis (психоанализ) a method of treating sb’s mental problems or disorders by making them aware of experiences in their early life and tracing the connection between these and their present behaviour or feelings

18. Psychoanalyst n (психоаналитик) a person who practises psychoanalysis

19. Psychiatrist n (психиатр) a specialist in psychiatry

20. Psychotherapy n (психотерапия) the treatment of mental disorders by discussing problems, etc, rather than giving drugs or other medical treatment

21. Reaction n (реакция) a response to a situation, an act, an influence, etc; a physical response, usu a bad one, to a drug, chemical substance, etc

22. Reject v (отвергать) to refuse to accept or consider sth given or offered; to fail to give a person or an animal due attention, care or affection

23. Revelation n (откровение, открытие) the making known of sth that was secret or hidden; a thing which is revealed, esp sth surprising

24. Transference n (передача) the action of transferring sth or the process of being transferred

25. Trouble n (беспокойство, тревога, неприятности) worry, difficulty, danger, etc or a situation causing this

26. Soul n (душа) the spiritual part of a person, believed to exist after death; a person’s moral or emotional nature or sense of identity; strong and good human feeling; emotional, moral and intellectual energy, eg as revealed in works of art

27. Strengthen v (усиливать, укреплять) to become or make sb / sth stronger

28. Subconscious adj (подсознательный) (of or concerning thoughts and feelings in the mind, which one is not fully aware of but which influence one’s actions

29. Unconscious adj (бессознательный) not conscious

30. Vulnerability adj (уязвимый) that can be hurt, harmed or attacked easily, esp because of being small or weak

31. Analysis, n. (анализ) — detailed examination of the elements or structure of something; the process of separating something into its constituent elements.

32. Applied science, n. (прикладная наука) — the application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment.

33. Approach, n. (подход) — start to deal with (a situation or problem) in a certain way.

34. Classification, n. (классификация) — the act or process of dividing things into groups according to their type; a group that something is divided into.

35. Concept, n. (концепция) — an abstract idea; an idea or mental image which corresponds to some distinct entity or class of entities, or to its essential features, or determines the application of a term (especially a predicate), and thus plays a part in the use of reason or language.

36. Correlation, n. (корреляция, взаимосвязь) — a connection between two or more things, often one in which one of them causes or influences the other.

37. Deductive, adj. (дедуктивный) — characterized by or based on the inference of particular instances from a general law.

38. Discovery, n. (открытие) — the process of finding information, a place or an object, especially for the first time, or the thing which is found.

39. Empirical, adj. (эмпирический, основанный на опыте) — based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic.

40. Examine, v. (исследовать, изучать, проверять) — inspect (someone or something) thoroughly in order to determine their nature or condition.

41. Experiment, n. (эксперимент) — a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact.

42. Explanation, n. (объяснение) — a statement or account that makes something clear.

43. Hypothesis, n. (гипотеза) — a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

44. Inductive, adj. (индуктивный) — characterized by the inference of general laws from particular instances.

45. Investigate, v. (исследовать, изучать, собирать сведения) — carry out a systematic or formal inquiry to discover and examine the facts of (an incident, allegation, etc.) so as to establish the truth; carry out research or study into (a subject or problem, typically one in a scientific or academic field).

46. Knowledge, n. (знание) — facts, information, and skills acquired through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.

47. Laboratory, n. (лаборатория) — a room or building equipped for scientific experiments, research, or teaching, or for the manufacture of drugs or chemicals.

48. Law, n. (закон) — a statement of fact, deduced from observation, to the effect that a particular natural or scientific phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions are present; a generalization based on a fact or event perceived to be recurrent.

49. Measurement, n. (измерение) — the act or process of measuring; the size, shape, quality, etc. of something, which you discover by measuring it.

50. Natural science, n. (естественные науки) — a branch of science which deals with the physical world, e.g. physics, chemistry, geology, biology; the branch of knowledge which deals with the study of the physical world.

51. Observation, n. (наблюдение) — the action or process of closely observing or monitoring something or someone.

52. Phenomenon, n. (феномен) — a fact or situation that is observed to exist or happen, especially one whose cause or explanation is in question.

53. Prediction (forecast), n. (прогноз) — a statement about the way things will happen in the future, often but not always based on experience or knowledge.

54. Research, n. (исследование) — the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.

55. Science, n. (наука) — the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.

56. Scientific method, n. (научный метод) — a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

57. Scientific misconduct, n. (научная недостоверность) — action which wilfully compromises the integrity of scientific research, such as plagiarism or the falsification or fabrication of data.

58. Scientist, n. (ученый) — a person who is studying or has expert knowledge of one or more of the natural or physical sciences.

59. Social science, n. (общественные науки) — the scientific study of human society and social relationships; a subject within the field of social science, such as economics or politics.

60. Study, v. (изучать, учиться, заниматься) — devote time and attention to acquiring knowledge on (an academic subject), especially by means of books; investigate and analyse (a subject or situation) in detail; acquire academic knowledge at an educational establishment.

61. Synthesis, n. (синтез) — the combination of components or elements to form a connected whole; the final stage in the process of dialectical reasoning, in which a new idea resolves the conflict between thesis and antithesis.

62. Term, n. (термин) — a word or phrase used to describe a thing or to express a concept, especially in a particular kind of language or branch of study.

63. Test, v. (тестировать,проверять) — take measures to check the quality, performance, or reliability of (something), especially before putting it into widespread use or practice.

64. Theory, n. (теория) — a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.

65. Thought experiment, n. (мысленный эксперимент) — a mental assessment of the implications of a hypothesis.

66. Validate, v. (подтверждать, обосновывать) — check or prove the validity or accuracy of; demonstrate or support the truth or value of.

 

ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ

Приложение 1

Abbreviations and acronyms,

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