The different types of the translation.
Translation is a set of actions performed by the translator while rendering the source text into another language. Translation is a means of interlingual communication. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target language or the translating language a text which has an identical communicative value with the source or original text. This target text is not fully identical as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the source language and translation. Nevertheless the users of translation identify it, to all intents and purposes, with functionally, structurally and semantically. The functional identification is revealed in the fact that the handle translation in such a way as if it were translation, a creation of the source text author. The structure of the translation should follow that of the original text: there should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments of the text. The aim is maximum parallelism of structure which would make it possible to relate each segment of the translation to the respective part of the original. Of major importance is the semantic identification of the translation with translation. It is presumed that the translation has the same meaning as the original text. No exchange of information is possible if there is discrepancy between the transmitted and the received message. The presumption of semantic identity between language and translation is based on the various degrees of equivalence of their meanings. The translator usually tries to produce in the closest possible equivalent to translation. The translating process includes two mental processes – understanding and verbalization. First, the translator understands the contents of text, that is, reduce the information it contains to his own mental program, and then he develops this program into translation. The translating process has to be described in some translation models.
A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the source text or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed. Translation models can be oriented either toward the situation reflected in the ST contents or toward the meaningful components of the ST contents. The existing models of the translating process are based on the situational model, which is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the translation, and the semantic-transformational model postulates the similarity of basic notions and nuclear structures in different languages. These postulates are supposed to explain the dynamic aspects of translation. In other words, it is presumed that the translator actually makes a mental travel from the original to some interlingual level of equivalence and then further on to the text of translation. In the situational model this intermediate level is extra linguistic. It is the described reality, the facts of life that are represented by the verbal description. The process of translating presumably consists in the translator getting beyond the original text to the actual situation described in it. This is the first step of the process, i.e. the break-through to the situation. The second step is for the translator to describe this situation in the target language. Thus the process goes from the text in one language through the extra linguistic situation to the text in another language. The translator first understands what the original is about and then says “the same things” in translation. The translating process may be described as a series of transformations. The transformational model postulates that in any two languages there are a number of nuclear structures which are fully equivalent to each other. Each language has an area of equivalence in respect to the other language. It is presumed that the translator does the translating in three transformational strokes. First – the stage of analysis – he transforms the original structures into the nuclear structures, i.e. he performs transformation within SL. Second – the stage of translation proper – he replaces the SL nuclear structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in TL. And third – the stage of synthesis – he develops the latter into the terminal structures in the text of translation. In the final analysis, however, his trade remains an art. Contemporary translation activities of a translator are characterized by a great variety of types, forms and levels of his responsibility. [9, p. 569]
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The translator:
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• has to deal with works of the great authors of the past and of the leading authors of today, with intricacies of science fiction and the accepted stereotypes of detective stories;
• must be able to cope with the elegancy of expression of the best masters of literary style and with the tricks and formalistic experiments of modern avant-gardes;
• has to preserve and fit into a different linguistic and social context a gamut of shades of meaning and stylistic nuances expressed in the original text by a great variety of language devices: neutral and emotional words, archaic words and new coinages, metaphors and similes, foreign borrowings, dialectal, jargon and slang expressions, stilted phrases and obscenities, proverbs and quotations, illiterate or inaccurate speech, and so on and so forth; [10, p. 456]
Translating a play the translator must bear in mind the requirements of theatrical presentation, and dubbing a film he must see to it that his translation fits the movement of the speakers’ lips. The translator may be called upon to make his translation in the shortest possible time, while taking a meal or against the background noise of loud voices or rattling type-writers. In simultaneous interpretation the translator is expected to keep pace with the fastest speakers, to understand all kinds of foreign accents and defective pronunciation, to guess what the speaker meant to say but failed to express due to his inadequate proficiency in the language he speaks. In consecutive interpretation he is expected to listen to long speeches, taking the necessary notes, and then to produce his translation in full or compressed form, giving all the details or only the main ideas. Each type of translation has its own combination of factors influencing the translating process.
Different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation or interpretation, on the other hand. There are two main classifications of types of the translation:
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The first is the character of the texts being translated and the nature of the speech actions in translation process. The first classification is connected with genre and stylistic features of the original, the second - with psycholinguistic features of speech actions in a written and oral form. Genre and stylistic classification of the translations: literary translation and informative special translation. Always there were disputes between supporters of a literal and free translation. One insist on need of the maximum similarity to the original, even to the detriment of sense and beauty of style, others assert the right of the translator for creation of independent work, faithful to spirit of the original, but not following him in details at all. Especially big freedom is demanded by them for the poetic translation. Catchwords of the famous writer and translator of Zhukovsky are widely known: "The translator in prose is the slave; the translator in verses - the rival" the rival of the author of the original creating own work, not smaller advantages. For a literary translation one of communicative functions, namely art and esthetic or poetic is proponent. The main objective of any work of this type consists in achievement of a certain esthetic influence, creation of an artistic image. Such esthetic orientation distinguishes artistic speech from other acts of speech communication which informative contents is primary, independent. [11, p. 321]
Literary translation deals with literary texts, i.e. works of fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translator’s primary task is to reproduce this quality in translation. Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. A literary text may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative character.
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Informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect. Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres.Literary translations may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The particular tasks inherent in the translation of literary works of each genre are more literary than linguistic. The great challenge to the translator is to combine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit. The translator of a belles-lettres text is expected to make a careful study of the literary trend the text belongs to, the other works of the same author, the peculiarities of his individual style and manner and so on. This involves both linguistic considerations and skill in literary criticism. A good literary translator must be a versatile scholar and a talented writer or poet. A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.
In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original. The predominance of the referential function is a great challenge to the translator who must have a good command of the technical terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in the original. The technical translator is also expected to observe the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical materials to make text acceptable to the specialist. Some types of texts can be identified not so much by their positive distinctive features as by the difference in their functional characteristics in the two languages. English newspaper reports differ greatly from their Ukrainian counterparts due to the frequent use of colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases, eye-catching headlines, etc. Apart from technical and newspaper materials it may be expedient to single out translation of official diplomatic papers as a separate type of informative translation. These texts make a category of their own because of the specific requirements to the quality of their translations. Such translations are often accepted as authentic official texts on a par with the originals. They are important documents every word of which must be carefully chosen as a matter of principle. That makes the translator very particular about every little meaningful element of the original which he scrupulously reproduces in his translation. This is scrupulous imitation of the original results sometimes in the translator more readily erring in literality than risking to leave out even an insignificant element of the original contents.
Journalistic (or publicist) translating with social or political matters are sometimes singled out among other informative materials because they may feature elements more commonly used in literary text (metaphors, similes and other stylistic devices) which cannot but influence the translator’s strategy. More often, however, they are regarded as a kind of newspaper materials. There are also some minor groups of texts that can be considered separately because of the specific problems their translation poses to the translator. They are film scripts, comic strips, commercial advertisements and the like. In dubbing a film the translator is limited in his choice of variants by the necessity to fit the pronunciation of the translated words to the movement of the actor’s lips. Translating the captions in a comic strip, the translator will have to consider the numerous allusions to the facts well-known to the regular readers of comics but less familiar to the Ukrainian readers. And in dealing with commercial advertisements he must bear in mind that their sole purpose is to win over the prospective customers. Since the text of translation will deal with quite a different kind of people than the original advertisement was meant for, there is the problem of achieving the same pragmatic effect by introducing the necessary changes in the message. In written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in the second case he hears it. There are also some intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it “at sight”. A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his “at sight” translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writer getting the translation in written form. These are all modifications of the two main types of translation. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. Learners need to practice using the language, in as realistic and authentic ways possible. [12, p. 256]
Grammar study, gap fills are only steps along the way to developing the ability to use language for real tasks. Classroom language is an important Source of input and practice. are individuals; they learn in different ways and have different needs. Need to be aware of our individual students needs, and cater to them as much as possible. We need to vary our ways of presenting and practicing language to appeal to different learning styles. There is no "right way" to learn, and we need to respect the different needs and wants of our students. We should try as much as possible to get to know our students as people, on a normal human level. Learn best when they feel comfortable and relaxed. Must try to create an atmosphere of trust and mutual respect in our groups. Learners should feel that their opinions are valued. Learners should feel that they can make mistakes without fear of ridicule; we should not emphasize or exploit the imbalance in the teacher-learner power relationship. Teachers and learners should be on a first name basis. Tasks should be challenging but achievable. Should be involved in the learning process. Should elicit learners input regarding course content. We should give them the opportunity to evaluate our lessons, and to let us know what they do and do not enjoy about them. We should as much as is possible react and respond to learners' input. Learners should be made aware of their progress and encouraged to set their own goals. Need to learn how to learn. Should expose learners to a variety of ways to organize their learning. We should make our learners aware of the learning strategies they use, and expose them to other, possibly better, techniques. It is more important than grammar. [13, p. 10]
We should not focus on grammar at the expense of vocabulary. New vocabulary should be introduced in almost every lesson. Fluency is more important than accuracy. And it should be selective in our correction of learners. We need to plan lessons that allow students to speak freely as well as speak with restrictions and correction. Learners should be made aware that ''getting the message across" is just as important as "getting the English right» is more important than teaching. Should pay more attention to what the students are doing in a lesson, and less about what we are doing. Student talk is more useful than teacher talk. Learners should get the chance to answer questions. We should plan our lessons with an eye to what learners will be able to do that they couldn't do before. all your students to speak English in class can be a challenging task for any EFL teachers. It is necessary to organize a communicative activity which achieves maximum participation of the learners. In order to overall my students English Language skills, I often use the Morning Discussion as a Communicative Activity.lt makes the class more active and the students can exchange their opinions and the main thing is everyone can participate. Learners need to practice using the language, in as realistic and authentic ways possible. Students learn best when they feel comfortable and relaxed. We must try to create an atmosphere of trust mutual respect in our groups. Discussion helps our students to share their opinions on different themes and encourage group mates to join the discussion. Different short stories and topics are selected for MD by themselves. Volunteer student selects short stories or an article presents them to the class, encouraging group mates to join and take an active part in the discussion. The discussion would take different forms. Sometimes it was an interview using the main topic with some key questions. Other times it was Class Debate, students are divided into several mini-groups and each group is given a statement. They have to brainstorm reasons why it is true ready to defend their argument against their opponents. Discussion requires the teachers to play multiple roles e.g. to be as negotiators and to give positive and detailed comments on the performance of both hosts and the participants. Teacher's next role is a manager, which gives instructions for students to get into groups and as counselor advices students how best to approach a task. Discussion improves students express ability and speaking skills and they enjoy it. They choose and select for discussion, which covered social, cultural, educational, ecological and emotional issues. Other topics which include science and technology, business English, events in other parts of the world, public relations, American History and geography, interesting facts, Russian culture and traditions and everyday lives. Is a list of some topics: The Role of the English Language in the 21st century; Computers and Human Brains; getting education in abroad; Problems of youth today; My Dream House; My Future Profession; if I were the President I would.; Educational System of G.Britain;English Meal with your National Meal; Compare two holidays; Compare two powerful people; People are the same everywhere; There can be no happiness without money; Medical care should be free for all people; Meeting Internet friends; Electronic Communications Discussion creates opportunities for students to communicate using a variety of strategies. We should expose learners to a variety of ways to organize their learning. We should pay more attention to what our students are doing at the lesson, and less about what we are doing. Student talk is more useful than teacher talk. Learners should get the chance to answer questions and share their opinions on different themes. Teacher must remember that it is not necessary to be at the front of the class, and takes one seat in the circle. We consider the teacher's role in a communicative classroom we must also come to the conclusion that the teacher is not in any sense attempting to teach conversation. [14, p. 45]
Perhaps the teacher simply arouses interest in a topic, pre-teaches vocabulary, sets a task, monitors performance and gives feedback on the use of structure and lexis. To the term discussion class is more satisfactory as it gives a much more accurate idea of what happens during class time. It suggests that the class as a whole will be involved in the discussion of a single topic which is chosen by the learners or by teachers. Teacher uses open questions and increases opportunities for STT, as for the students, they ask questions, give explanations & definitions, in short they enjoy getting more opportunities to talk and having fun and relaxation. Is through discussions that many teachers provide their learners with opportunities to improve their fluency skills, the swift recall of appropriate lexis the fluid formation of correct tenses and the main thing is the effective use of communication strategy. Format and the structure of MD are not fixed, but rather developed by the students to suit the topic and their presentation preferences. Usually, after the teacher-student morning greetings, the student host would present the material she had prepared for discussion. As usual, before the discussion, some necessary words and phrases are presented, which were prepared by the students and teachers..g. Topic "Educational system of Great Britain": an impressive complex of modern teaching and residential accommodation; the well equipped multimedia classrooms; the Queen's Building ; a swimming pool and fully equipped sports center; Oxford, the famous university city and seat of learning; the modern classrooms; the latest teaching methods; unique and motivating program up to date course books; to have access to E-mail and Internet facilities; an intensive computer course; full day Excursions; a homely atmosphere; the beautiful red brick mansion; the most prestigious university. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent messages. These are most favorable conditions and here we can expect the best performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical discussions we have usually examples from written translations where the translating process can be observed in all its aspects. The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator’s performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with a lower level of equivalence.
There are two main kinds of oral translation – consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter’s strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter’s training as are special exercises to develop his memory. Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgment on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quick-witted thinker. In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature. [15, p. 78]
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