Semantic and Syntactical Relations within a Phrase or Sentence.
Qs.
1. Theory of Valency
2. Semantical and Syntactical Relations between elements
3. Theory of Ranks
Q1. Theory of Valency
Valency – French linguist Tenger (in his works) borrowed it from chemistry and brought to linguistics.
Each element has a number of connections.
Tenger referred this term to the verb and its dependents. According to him, verbs play central role in the sentence. All the other elements depend on the verb.
He replaced subject, object with actants.
Valency according to him is the number of actants a verb can have.
Adverbial modifiers are called circumstants. They are excluded from the sphere of verb valency.
He based on the lexical meaning of the verb. The number of actants depends on the meaning of the verb.
In Russian linguistics (Vinogradov, Peshkovskyi) were developing the theory of combinability which is related to valency and it takes into account both semantic and syntactical properties of verbs. It may be optional and compulsory.
Dependent elements have compulsory combinability if the headword has the so called strong elements.
# a verb requires a noun in the proper form both semantically and syntactically
If it’s weak -> dependent elements are optional.
# he’s at home (compulsory)
Q2. Semantical and Syntactical Relations
These two aspects are closely interconnected but the same meaning may be expressed with the help of different syntactical means.
# meaning of possession: I have a car; my car; mom’s car.
Sometimes we can state difference between semantical and syntactical structure of an element -> very often observed in phrases with an attribute in postposition expressed with an infinitive of a transitive verbs.
Such a phrase is missing an explicit object.
# a problem to discuss
Semantical structure = an action + its object. Syntactically the object is hidden in the headword – phrases with a hidden object.
An object may be omitted after a transitive verbs if it refers to every possible object and doesn’t refer to a particular one.
# he can read.
Syntactical structure of the phrase is:
N + Vtrans + Ø
Semantic structure: N + Vtrans + <000000000….>
Factors which influence the structure of the phrase:
1. The parts of speech the word belongs to
# care – careful – carefully -à are used in different syntactical constructions.
2. The lexical meaning of the word.
# brave requires a noun denoting a living being; elder, eldest + a noun denoting the member of a family.
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Q3. Theory of Ranks
The main idea is despite of the fact that sentences and phrases are usually supposed to have linear structure, elements are connected by relations which are hierarchical.
This hierarchical structure of the phrase was focused on by Otto Jasperson.
The phrase can be of several levels of subordination.
# a furiously barking dog
These words belong to different levels of subordination:
Primary – dog
Secondary – barking
Tertiary – furiously
It doesn’t distinguish other levels in which tertiary words have modifiers of their own.
Levels aren’t related to syntactical functions and shouldn’t be taken by definite parts of speech though there are some correspondences.
# a finite verb – secondary element only
No criteria for the ranks.
The Simple Sentence.
Q-s:
1. General Characteristics
2. Communicative Types
3. Sentence Structure, its parts
4. Actual Division of the Sentence
Q1. General Characteristics
Sentences – at the top of the hierarchy of language unit; used to name situations.
Characteristics:
1. intonation;
2. names situations;
3. grammatical structure;
4. expresses a complete idea;
5. predication – time of action; real/ unreal action.
Sentences consist of elements which are connected by different relations:
- linear;
- coordination; subordination (# white rabbit); interdependence (# Mary speaks).
- Informative value of different sentence components.
Sentence has a form, meaning and it’s used in speech situation:
- structural;
- semantic – the meaning of sentence depending on meanings of words constituting it and their position.
- Pragmatic – speech situations use of sentences with certain communicative intention.
Q2. Communicative Types.
Declarative; interrogative; imperative; exclamatory. => structural and pragmatic aspects influence the types.
1. Declarative sentences.
- state a fact;
- affirmative and negative;
2. Interrogative sentences.
- to ask for information;
- special, disjunctive, and general.
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3. Imperative sentences.
- inducement;
- hidden subject, verb – infinitive (?) or verb in the second person.
4. Exclamatory sentences.
- express emotions;
- element to emphasize – What a …! How … !
Negative sentences represent a difficulty and a question arises if they form a separate type of the sentence.
a) sentences belonging to all types may be negative;
b) there are different ways of expressing negation (special form of the verb, words, expressions with a negative meaning).
It should be regarded as a feature which may be characteristic of any communicative type of a sentence as well as an exclamation à accompanying feature.
Correlation of sentences of different communicative types.
In properties of form and meaning of sentences are correlated with listener’s responses.
# declarative usually correlate with signals of attention.
Imperative are correlated with whether action response or verbal response shows that the inducement is rejected or not.
Questions à answers, etc.
Q3. Parts of Sentences.
Principal (main) and secondary parts à distinction.
In the principal à subject and predicate – take up forming the predicative centre of the sentence;
In the secondary à object, adverbial modifier, attribute.
Subject denotes some object whose action is expressed by the predicate. (doer, source, sb who undergoes the action).
Subject – independent;
- expressed by different parts of speech;
- real or formal.
Predicate – expresses predicativeness;
- connects subject with other parts;
- classified according to their structure, morphological characteristics (verbal, nominal).
The division of secondary parts into types has many weak points because the characteristic features of each type aren’t clearly defined.
Hence, it’s a matter of personal opinion.
Object – thing/ addressee of the action/ result of the action/ sometimes doer of the action;
- direct – vague classification without any principle; indirect and prepositional (Deutschbain).
Adverbial modifier – free distribution in the sentence;
- types are determined by semantic types of adverbs;
- are connected with the verb.
Attribute – depends on the noun;
- pre- or postposition;
- element of a nominal phrase denoting some object quality.
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