Q-n1. General characteristics.
Verb – words denoting action or state, possessing the grammatical categories of voice, person, number, mood, aspect and tense.
Functions:
- predicate
- subject
- object
- attribute
- adverbial modifier
Verbs possess two different types of form: - finite; - non-finite.
The two forms function differently: - finite = predicate; - non-finite can only be a part of predicate; subject, object, attribute and adverbial modifier.
- Groups of verbs:
- Formal division:
a) Regular b) Irregular c) Mixed d) Suppletive
- Morphological structure
a) Simple
b) Derivative
c) Phrasal Verbs
d) Compound # to blackmail
There exist verbs which are simple according to morphological structure but appeared as a result of conversión.
# to hand
There are verbs derived from nouns which don’t add any suffixes but change the stress position:
# to object – object
Phrasal Verbs are subdivided into two main types:
- 1st group – two elements – 1st element – verb; 2nd element – adverbial particle # get up
- 2nd group – combinations denoting momentaneous action = verb + noun; the combination has a corresponding verb; e.g. give a smile.
- Functional classification
1. Notional – full lexical meaning
2. Link – partial lexical meaning – a) being and remaining; b) becoming;
3. Auxiliary – no lexical meaning; expresses grammatical meaning;
4. Modals (sometimes viewed upon as a separate group) – special meaning (attitude of a speaker).
Phase verbs – denote different stages of a cycle:
To start, to begin; to keep on; to go on; to finish…
Special verbs which denote repetition of an action: # redo, etc.
Verbs are divided into groups basing on presence/ absence of some limit in the meaning:
- limitive/ terminative (предельные) # to find
- non-limitive/ non-terminative # to look for
Transitive & intransitive: basing on their ability to have a direct object after them.
Q-n2. The category of person and number.
The categories of person and number are closely connected with each other.
Forms used to express number:
- 3p Sg expressed in all verbs in the present tense except for “to be”; -s à 3p Sg meanings;
- ‘to be’ in the past tense (only number);
- In the present tense ‘to be’ – am – 1p Sg; - is – 3p Sg; are – 2, 3 p Sg + Pl.
- In the future (only person) – will, shall.
The categories are regarded as limited ones because they don’t possess regular means to express their grammatical meanings opposed in these two categories.
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There are forms which express both person and number. The English language reveals the tendency to limit the categories: # shall, will = I’ll, you’ll; ain’t = aren’t, isn’t.
The category of tense is traditionally regarded as an opposition of three grammatical meanings: present, past and future. The last member of the opposition is the subject of discussion in linguistics – its existence is often denied by different linguists, e.g. Otto Jespersen.
His arguments are:
- from diachronic points of view - in Old English there were only two tenses – past and present; so the combinations ‘will/shall’ still preserve their modal meaning but aren’t auxiliaries.
The form ‘future in the past’ can’t be categorized. Blokh introduced the idea which explains its position in the category of tense: there’s not only 1 category of tense but there’s a combination of two temporal categories: - the category of primary time; - the category of prospect.
There are two stages for building verbs: - we divide tense forms into two types:
- past-tense forms (marked member);
- non-past tense forms (unmarked member)
These forms are subdivided into: - future tense forms (marked); - non-future (non-marked).
Q-n 5. The category of aspect.
There are two sets of forms in the English verb which are opposed on the principle of use or non-use of the form: ‘be + PI’.
The basic characteristic of forms containing Ving is that they denote an action proceeding continuously at a definite period of time.
This meaning of a continuous action can be expressed lexically – by the lexical meaning of the verb.
# The earth goes round the Sun.
Aspective/ temporal meanings of the verb are different.
Aspective one reflects the mode/ character of realization of some process irrespective of its timing.
The process may take place at different periods of time.
Two sets of forms are used to express two aspects of meaning which are called common and continuous.
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Aspective forms of the verb may affect the meaning of the verb and may not:
# young man sat in the corner of the room.
Young man was sitting in the corner of the room.
He brought her some flowers.
He was brining her some flowers.
The meanings of the sentences are different because of different aspective meanings of the verbs.
Q-n 4. The category of voice.
Binary opposition: active and passive – showing the direction of the action.
‘be+PII’ – marked member
There’s no strict correspondence between the grammatical meaning and means of expression.
# I opened the door.
The door opened.
At various times the following three voices have been suggested in addition to the two already mentioned:
- middle # the cat killed
- reflexive # she dressed herself
- reciprocal # they greeted one another
The traditional point of view.
Grammatical meaning of the category could be expressed by the lexical meaning of the verb
# to suffer
The category is considered to be directly connected with the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive.
Only transitive verbs have the passive voice because of the direct object after them which in passive construction takes the position of the subject.
This division isn’t strict.
# his bed has not been slept on.
Passive construction: - the doer isn’t important; - scientific style; - impersonal s-ces.
‘be + PII’ is homonymous to the passive construction.
# the window’s broken --- denotes the state
In the English language there are groups of verbs which contain a verb and a reflexive pronoun and are sometimes considered to be a reflexive voice form.
# she dresses herself.
- syntactical construction – he doer and the recipient of the action are formally distinguished.
- Semantic construction – the doer and the recipient coincide.
Reflexive pronouns should be regarded as means of forming the reflexive voice.
‘V + reflexive pronoun’ may have different meanings.
The reflexive pronouns not only serve to express the reflexive voice but can also function as an object of the action.
# He hurt himself badly. – can be substituted by other pronouns.
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In such constructions reflexive pronouns are parts of verbs.
Middle voice.
The problem arises in connection with the possibility of double use of a number of verbs:
# I open the door – the door opened.
Verbs in such sentences denote an action performed by the doer of the action on some object so that a change is brought.
In the sentences of the second type (the door opened). The process is stated which is going on in the subject itself.
In the 1st case the verb is transitive (direct object). In the second case – intransitive.
If we regard these verbs as different ones, the problem is shifted into the sphere of lexicology.
Another interpretation of the problem is that in both cases the verb is the same and the difference between these two sentences is the difference of voice- 1st – active; 2nd – middle voice denoting a process going on within the subject without affecting any object.
The difference between these two voices isn’t expressed with the help of morphological means but syntactical constructions they are used are different:
1st case – S – P – O
2nd case – S – P
As for traditional interpretation accepted by most linguists – the verb in both sentences is the same, the voice is also the same. Difference in meaning and syntactical construction isn’t sufficient enough to establish a difference of voice.
Q-n 6. The category of mood.
Quote: by professor Ilyish:
“The category of mood in the present English verb has given rise to so many discussions and has been treated in so many different ways that it seems hardly possible to arrive at any more or less convincing and universally acceptable conclusion concerning it.”
- The category expressing the certain modality of the utterance, speaker’s understanding the relation between utterance and reality. The number of moods is disputable (from 2 to 16).
Traditionally, there are three moods: - indicative, - imperative; - subjunctive.
Indicative – meaning – action which really takes or took place which is referred to a definite period of time.
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Imperative – meaning – the person’s will aiming at making the recipient act.
- expressed: a) infinitive without the particle ‘to’ # Be careful!
Some say that it’s a finite form which is explained by the omitted subject ‘you’ which is always meants.
Subjunctive – meaning – speaker’s attitude (desirable, not real, etc.)
- a great variety of forms;
- no straightforward relation between the form and meaning
a) be (archaic and stylistically limited)
b) were (no stylistic limitations, sometimes ‘was’ is used)
c) Present Simple (except for the 3p Sg) # I suggest that he go.
d) Past Simple/ Past Perfect of the indicative mood
e) analytical forms with should/ would + Inf (sometimes can be substituted by modal verbs – could or might).
Some linguists put forward the idea by Smirnitskyi – classified the forms basing on the meaning:
- Subjunctive 1 – utterances which don’t contradict the reality;
- Subjunctive 2 – utterances expressing unreal actions;
- Suppositional mood - # Should you meet him…;
- Conditional mood
Another classification by Ilyish – basing on both form and meaning: 6 groups with the subjunctive mood basing on the meaning:
1st – Present Simple - # come – meaning: inducement
2nd - # He come – meaning: possibility
3rd - # Came, had come – unreal condition
4th - # Should come – for all persons – unlikely condition
5th - # Should come – for the 1st person – consequence of unreal condition
6th - # Would come – 2, 3 person – wish or purpose
Classification by Blokh.
Analyzing such forms as ‘be what may’, ‘long live the Queen’, he makes a conclusion that semantic observation of these constructions shows that within the general meaning of hypothetical action it signifies different attitudes towards the process denoted by the verb and the situation denoted by the construction built up around it.
Namely, supposition, suggestion, recommendation, inducement of various degrees of insistence.
He thinks that the analyzed form type under study presents the mood of attitudes or spective mood.
It corresponds to traditional subjunctive one.
So, forms, known as the forms of the imperative mood are also included into spective mood by him (basing on their morphological and semantic coincidence).
He also claims that the imperative form displays every form of attitude which can easily be shown by means of transformation.
e.g. D
o as I ask you – the imperative ‘do’ expresses inducement which can be transformed.
I insist that you do as I ask you.
Except for pure spective he also distinguishes the modal spective mood but the forms of expression are different.
He subdivides it into 3 subtypes:
- forms consisting of modals (might, may) + infinitive
meaning – hope, wish, desire.
- forms ‘should + Infinitive’
e.g. whatever they should say of the project it must be considered serious.
Meaning – recommendation, suggestion.
- ‘let + obj substantive + infinitive’
e.g. Let him repeat it.
Meaning – inducement, an appeal to commit an action.
Except for these two types – Past Subjunctive:
- past simple ‘to be’ (plural)
- past perfect
- would + infinitive
Blokh divides these sentences into:
- sentences expressing unreal condition and unreal consequence.
Q 7. Verbals.
Infinitive.
The properties of a noun and verb.
Verbal characteristics:
- tense (realtive)
- voice (relative)
- direct object (aspect)
- + adverb
Nominal characteristic:
- subject/ object
- meaning – action as an object.
Forms:
- +/- ‘to’
- 6 forms: 4 active; 2 passive (simple/ indefinite and perfect)
Functions:
- notional self-positional syntactic part of the sentence (grammatical free function)
e.g. begin to kill
- notional constituent of a complex verbal predicate built up around a predicator verb (half-free usage)
e.g. will do; shall kill
- notional constituent of a finite conjugation form of the verb
# functioning like a noun the infinitive denotes an action (corresponding process by an abstract form) can be changed into a different word/ noun
e.g. he decided to move;
what did he decide?
Forms of the infinitive are divided into marked (with particle ‘to’) and unmarked (without ‘to’ – bare infinitive).
Particle ‘to’ – inf marker can be used in isolation representing the whole construction omitted in the text.
Gerund.
Combines verbal and nominal characteristics:
- + adverb; - subject, object
- direct object - process as an object – meaning
- tense (relative) - + possessive pronoun
- voice (relative) - + preposition
Many linguists claim that it’s not necessary to distinguish between PI and gerund because it’s one and the same –ing form.
(+ Russian linguists: Plotnikov, Barhudarov)
Arguments:
- Attribute before a noun – PI and gerund have different meanings
e.g. dancing girl – girl’s dancing
dancing hall – a hall for dancing
the transformation shows that the meaning is different.
- syntactical position of an object
e.g. do you mind me doing this? – action is emphasized
do you mind my doing this? – ‘doing’ is the main element of the construction.
Participle I.
Verbal and adjectival characteristics:
- tense, voice - qualifying processual name
- attribute (NB: participial phrases – post position)
- adverbial modifier
- part of a complex object
- predicative
There are words containing suffixes ‘ing’ and ‘ed’
# heart-breaking
PI as gerund and infinitive is often used in semi-predicative constructions in which it’s used to form a potential predicative centre.
Participle II
Verbal and adjectival:
- tense - qualifying processual name
- voice - attribute
- etc - predicative
- adverbial modifier
- object (objective participial construction)
As a predicative PII is close in meaning to passive voice (action/ state).
Adverb.
- notional part of speech serving to express a property or an action, circumstances in which an action occurs, property of a property.
We exclude the words expressing speaker’s attitude to the action (as perhaps, certainly, like) – modal words.
Morphological structure:
- simple
- derivative – likewise, wards, ways
- compound
- composite – at last
According to their meaning:
- qualitative # fast
- circumstancial # near, suddenly
A limited number of adverbs have morphological degrees of comparison formed in a suppletive way or by means of suffixes.
Well – better – the best
Syntactical functions:
- adverbial modifier
- predicative
- attribute
Some adverbs coincide in forms with prepositions or conjunction.
Phrasal Verbs.
Verb+ post-verbal element which coincides in form with preposition or adverb
# to get off
Second element is viewed in different ways.
Theory by Zheluktenko:
These formations are analytical verbs, second element – post-positive prefix, because the correspondence is found in English.
# to bring up – upbringing
It’s not a verb, it’s a prefix.
It can’t explain all the cases.
The Phrase
1. Types of Syntactical Relations within a phrase
2. classification of phrases.
Q-n1.
Syntax – phrases and sentences, texts, etc.
Phrase – a group of words connected by syntactical relations. = word-group, word combination.
Phrases are used to denote complicated objects, possess the function of polynomination.
Sentences are used to name situations. The most important feature of sentences is predication, as well as intonation, and communicative intention.
Classification based on morphological principle:
1. N+N: subtypes: a) N in the common case + N in the common case – denotes one idea as modified by another in widest sense of the word (depends on the position); b) N in the possessive case + N in the common case – meaning of possession.
# Dog house – if we change their positions the meaning will change.
2. Adj + N
3. V + N – two types of relation: a) action and an object which undergoes it
b)N may denote measure; its syntactical function would be different (adv modifier of degree)
# to walk a mile
4. V + Adv actions and their property
5. Adv + Adj property of a property
6. Adv + Adv etc
7. N + prep + N
Sometimes list contains N + V (a predicative phrase) which is a special one b/c it’s a sentence
Classification by Blokh
He divides phrases into groups basing on status of words.
1. Phrases consisting of notional words only
2. Phrases consisting of notional and functional words
3. Phrases consisting of functional words only
Phrases type1.
Serve to denote different phenomena more complicated than the ones denoted by words; possess nominative value.
Phrases type2.
Denote abstract relations; as for their nominative value they are equivalent to a separate word. They are dependent, can’t be used without a context.
# to him
Phrases type3.
Equal to separate functional words, are used as connectors or specifiers of notional elements.
# such as; up to
Usually according to syntactical relations phrases are divided into two types:
If notional words in a phrase are related to one another on an equal rank, they are called equipotent.
If one element depends on the other, the phrase is called dominational.
Equipotent connection in word combinations is realized either syndetically or asyndetically.
# bed and breakfast
Plain, laughy
Dominational connection implies that one constituent is dominating and may be called head-word, dominant, kernel one.
The constituent that is subordinate an adjunct or expansion.
These two types of relations are also called coordination and subordination.
Classification based on the syntactical functioning:
1. Predicative
2. Adverbial
3. Attributive
4. Objective
Type one: N + V (subject + predicate)
Type two: V + N
Type three: N + N; Adj + N
Type four: V + Adv; Adv+ Adj
Attempts were made to combine these two classifications.
Predicative relations differ from domination or subordination. It was called interdependence.
Ways pf expressing syntactical relations:
- agreement;
- government;
- joining.
Agreement – a dependent element takes form of a dominant one.
# this book
It’s not a very popular way in English.
Government – a head word requires a dependent word after it in a special form which doesn’t coincide with it.
# at him
V + pers pronouns; Prep + pers pronouns.
Joining – without changing the forms elements are close to each other through in reality it doesn’t happen every time.
# read quickly
Classification by Bloomfield.
Phrase – any group of words syntactically organized
Basing on their functioning in a larger unit (sentence):
1. Endocentric – one component can function in a bigger structure in the same way as the whole phrase. # poor John! – John ran away!
2. Exocentric – one element cannot replace the whole combination in a bigger structure.
# John runs.
Further division of endocentric phrases is based on the type of syntactical relations between phrase constituents. Bloomfield distinguishes subordinate relations and coordinative ones.
Further division of exocentric phrases is based on another principle. He distinguishes predicative and prepositional phrases.
Classification which takes into account the inner structure of the phrase:
- phrases with headword;
- without headword
With headword – It corresponds to the classification based on the syntactical relations. Phrases with headword possess a dominating element and dependent elements, basing on the position of dependent ones the phrases may be:
- progressive - regressive
Headword takes the initial position. Headword takes the last position.
# a friend of mine # nice dress.
Basing on the part of speech the headword belongs to:
- nominal;
- adjectival
- verbal
- adverbial.
Classification by Charles Hockett:
Basing on the position of the headword:
I. With Headwords:
1. Headword in postposition;
2. Headword in preposition.
3. Headword in the centre of the phrase # as good as that
4. Headword is framing the phrase # did not go
II. Without a Headword:
Elements may be connected by different types of syntactical relations.
Dependent Independent
Need additional context Can be identifies without any additional context
# him a letter # bed and breakfast
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