Adjective Grammemes in Speech 15 страница
The arguments are as follows:
1. The form would help expresses 'dependent unreality':
the realization of the action depends on the condition expressed
in the subordinate clause ((/-clause) 2.
2. It is 'mainly used in the principal clause
of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of и n r e a I
condition' 3.
3. Should is used for the first person and would for the
other persons 4.
Let us analyse these arguments.
1. If the meaning of 'dependent unreality' is to be treated
as the meaning of a separate mood, then the meaning of
'dependent reality' in a similar sentence // he is here, he will
help us must likewise be regarded as the meaning of a separate
mood which is to be distinguished from the indicative mood.
The meaning of tell in the sentence // you see her tell her to
come can also be defined as 'dependent urging' and be regard
ed as the meaning of a separate mood distinct from the
imperative mood.
2. The second argument deals with speech environment
and is of little value since the same authors produce examples
of the 'conditional mood' in different types of sentences.
1 Л. И Смирницкий, op. cit., p. 351; M. Ganshina, N. Va-
silevskya, op. cit., p 169.
2 M. Ganshina, N. Vasilevskaya, op. cit., p. 170.
3 Ib. p. 169—170.
4 А. И. С m и p h и ц к и и, op. cit., p. 350—351.
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Would you mind my opening the window? 1 I should I i k e to speak to you,2 etc.
3. The third argument is justly rejected by G. N. Vo-
rontsova who produces many literary examples to show that
'would-iorms' are used with the first person as often as
' shoutd-iorms' 3.
E. g. If I had held another pistol in my hand I would have shot him. I w о и I d I o v e to think that you took an interest in teaching me ... I wish I had a lot of money, I w о и I d n' t live another day in London. (Galsworthy).
Besides, the popular use of forms with -'d instead of should and would shows the oblitaration of 'person' distinctions.
4. The name conditional hardly fits, seeing that the forms
with should—would are as a rule not used in conditional
clauses. They are mostly used in principal clauses or simple
sentences, which distinguishes their distribution from that
of forms without should — would used almost exclusively in
subordinate clauses.
E. g. After all, ifhelostitwould not be he who paid. (Galsworthy). Under normal conditions Winifred would merely have locked the door. (Ib.).
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§ 245. The difference between the two sets of opposemes /had written (order)
wrote
-were written
(voice)
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should write
were writing (aspect) should have written (order) should be written (voice) should be writing (aspect) would write (person, irregular)
'А И Смирницкий, op cit,p 352
2 M Ganshina, N. Vasilevskaya, op cit , p 175.
3 Op cit , p. 289.
is thus a matter of usage. That does not exclude, of course, the possibility of a language category with speech significance (cf. the categories of case, voice). Hence the necessity of further investigation.
§ 246. What unites all the grammemes above and distinguishes them from the homonymous grammemes of the indicative mood as a system is
1) the meaning of "non-fact", the presentation of the action
as something imaginary,
2) the system of opposemes, as contrasted with that of
the indicative mood.
The Imperative Mood
§ 247. The imperative mood represents an action as a command, urging, request, exhortation addressed to one's interlocutor^). It is a direct expression of one's will. Therefore it is much more 'subjective' than the indicative mood. Its modal meaning is very strong and distinct.
§ 248 The imperative mood is morphologically the least developed of all moods. In fact, the grammeme write, know, warn, search, do, etc is the only one regularly met in'speech (as to don't write, do write see 'Syntax', § 389). The 'continuous' and 'passive' opposites of this grammeme (be writing, be searching, etc; be known, be warned, etc.) are very rare J.
L. g. Be always searching for new sensations (Wilde). Be w a r n e d in time, mend your manner (Shaw) 2.
§ 249. Though the system of the 'imperative' mood does not contain 'person' opposemes, it cannot be said that there is no meaning of 'person' in the imperative mood grammemes On the contrary, all of them are united by the meaning of 'second person' because it is always to his interlocutor (the second person) that the speaker addresses his order or request expressed with the help of imperative mood forms. Thus the
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1 So rare indeed that R. Lees and E. KJima write: "... there are no
imperatives with the have + Pie or be + Ing formatives: Do Ш *Have
done it\ *Be doing itt" (Language. 1963, p. 221).
2 See Л. С. Б a p x у д a p о в, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op cit., p. 210.
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meaeing of "second person" is a lexico-grammatical meaning (See § 148) common to all the imperative mood grammemes. This meaning makes it unnecessary to use the subject you with predicate verbs in the imperative mood. But sometimes you is ised for emphasis, as in Don't you do itl (see Note, p. 222).
§ 260. Some linguists are of the opinion that Modern English possesses analytical forms of the imperative mood for the first and the third person built up with the help of the semantically weakened unstressed let, as in Let him come, Let us g o, etc.
G. N. Vorontsova gives a detailed analysis of these constructions 1 to prove that they are analytical forms of the imperative:
1) Sentences like L e t' s I e t the newspaper reporters take
a crack at her (Gardner) prove that unlike the second let
which is a notional verb the first let is devoid of lexical mean
ing.
2) It is quite possible to treat the objective case pronouns
in the sentences Let т e be frank, Let h i т look out, Let them
both see, as the subjects.
3) An order can be addressed not only to the second person
but to the third person as well.
Compare: Someone make an offer — and quick! (Barr). Let someone т a k e an offer.
4) The recognition of the /e^-constructions as the analytic
al forms of the imperative would make the imperative a de
veloped morphological system.
All these considerations are serious enough. Still there are some objections to these constructions being regarded as analytical forms of the imperative.
1. There is some difference in meaning between Go! and
Let him go. In the second case no direct urging is expressed as
it is typical of the imperative mood.
2. Cases like Do not let us ever allude to those times 2,
with the word-morpheme do, alongside of such sentences as
Let it not be doubted that they were nice, well-behaved girls
(Bennett), without the word-morpheme do, show that let
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| 1 Qp. wt , p 250—258. 2 Г. Н. Воронцов; |
p ~2 M—2t>».
p о и ц о в a, op. cit, p. 257.
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has not yet established itself as a word-morpheme of the imperative mood.
To be on the safe side, we shall assume that the /^-constructions are analytical words in the making.
Verb Grammemes in Speech
§ 251. When used in speech a word has but one of its lexical meanings and all of its grammatical meanings (see § 21). Thus in the sentence He writes to me every week, the verb writes conveys only one of its lexical meanings ('communicates in writing'), whereas it has seven elementary grammatical meanings: 1) active voice, 2) non-perfect order, 3) non-continuous aspect, 4) present tense, 5) indicative mood, 6) third person, 7) singular number.
Since each of these elementary meanings can be singled out in a certain opposeme, the entire grammatical meaning of a grammeme as a unit of language must be regarded as the sum of its elementary grammatical meanings (present tense + active voice + indicative mood, etc.).
When used in speech, however, in diverse speech situat
ions, in various lexical and syntactical surroundings, with
verbs of different lexical meanings, a grammeme l may acquire
some complex meaning which cannot be directly inferred from
the meanings of its constituents. In other words, the entire
meaning of a grammeme in speech is often not equal to the
sum of it* elementary meanings and we may speak, in some
sense, of idiomatic meanings of grammemes. Hence the neces
sity of analysing the meanings of grammemes not only as
units of language, but as units of speech as well. ^
§ 252. The systems of different moods, as we know, contain different grammemes. We shall therefore discuss the grammemes of the indicative, subjunctive and imperative moods separately.
Within the indicative mood the meanings of 'tense', 'aspect' and 'order' are closely interlaced in speech. This is one of the reasons why linguists often do not distinguish them as separate categories of the language system. We shall study these meanings together.
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1 See note, p. 66.
167
The meanings of 'voice', 'person' and 'number' rarely mix with the other meanings, so that they can be studied separately. But the more or less simple meanings of 'number' and 'person' hardly need any special analysis *.
Now a few remarks about the names of grammemes. When we speak about 'passive voice' grammemes, we do not mean that there exist in English such grammemes whose only meaning is that of 'passive voice'. We simply unite all the grammemes that contain among others the meaning of 'passive voice', and exclude those that do not contain this meaning. When we deal with the 'present perfect continuous', we unite all the grammemes that have the meanings of 'present tense', 'perfect order' and 'continuous aspect', and exclude those that do not possess at least one of these meanings.
Indicative Mood Grammemes
The Present, Non-Continuous, Non-Perfect
§ 253. As a part of the verb system it may be said to present an action in the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-continuous or common aspect) and correlation with other situations (non-perfect order).
When occurring in speech in about 70 per cent of all cases it serves to denote a habitual, recurrent act, typical of a given person or thing, its more or less constant characteristics.
E. g. We never talk about our clients. (Hgniingway).
It is used in narration describing a chain of events in the present.
E. g. I p о и г a glass of milk into a pan, add two table- spoonfuls of sugar and an egg and т i x it all well. (Daily Worker).
§ 254. The action it denotes may either coincide with the moment of speech or cover a more or less lengthy period of time including the moment of speech.
1 "The distinctions of person and number (he has walked, I have walked, etc.) are not relevant dimensions of the chronological system. Forms representing those distinctions are in free variation in respect to the system Herein the distinctions will be ignored and the various forms used interchangeably." W. Diver. The Chronological System of the Englts/ г Verb, Word. 1963, v. 19, No. 2, p. 141.
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The present non-continuous non-perfect thus shows a dialectical combination of polar meanings '.
It denotes an action as occurring at the moment of speech when found with verbs not commonly used in the continuous aspect 2 (as in \ou see the joke, don't you?), or when the situation of speech shows that it is the fact itself that is important, but not the progress of the action, as in There goes Tom. Why do you s h о и t at me? -
When the present non-continuous non-perfect expresses an action that goes on forever and consequently takes place at the moment of speech as well 3, it implies that the statement was true in the past, it is true now and it will continue to be true in the future 4. It implies that time is unimportant to the truth of the statement.
E. g. Radio waves, t r a v e I in straight lines, or Tissues consist of cells.
When so used it is referred to as the 'supertemporal' or 'extemporal' present.
We do not hold with these terms since action cannot develop otherwise than in time. I. P. Ivanova aptly suggests that it should be termed 'omnitemporal' rather than 'super-temporal' or 'extemporal' 6.
As seen from the examples the present non-continuous non-perfect is particularly well suited to formulate the laws of science.
§ 255. In a context showing that reference is made to the past, the present non-continuous non-perfect may be used to denote past events, mostly presented as the speaker's reminiscences.
When employed in this function it is often termed 'historic' or 'dramatic' present. It can only be used if there is something in the context or in the situation of speech to show that the events described belong to the past.
/ remember it as vividly аь if it had happened yesterday. The old general shakes my hand, smiles and says: Well done, son. ( The Worker ).
1 В. В. В и н о г р а д о в, ор ей., р. 572.
2 See § 221
3О. Есперсен. Философия грамматики 4 The English Journal , 1961, December, No. 9, 6 И. П. И в а н о в a, op. cit, p. 33.
M., 1958, p. 660.
p. 312.
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Curme also mentions the so-called 'annalistic' present, a variety of the historical present used when some well known events or public figures of the past are spoken of. No other reference to the past may then be necessary.
E. g. Then Edward the Elder wins back Essex. (Hearn-shaw).
The historical present functions as a stylistic device imparting vividness and expressiveness to narration, bringing past events nearer the hearer (or reader), making them unfold before the speaker's eyes. Somewhat allied to this is the use of the present non-continuous non-perfect when we quote an old author feeling that his words 'have weight in the questions of the hour' (Curme).
Galsworthy says that humour is as essential to man as the scent to the rose.
§ 256. The present non-continuous non-perfect sometimes occurs with such verbs as to hear, to forget, to learn, to tell with reference to a past act where one might expect the present perfect to show that the act is viewed as one of present interest.
We h,e a r you are engaged to be married. (Jerome).
§ 257. The present non-continuous non-perfect may be used to denote a future action. The usage has been handed down from Old English with its two-tense system, in xyhich a future action was regularly denoted by the present tense.
When employed in the simple sentence to denote a future act the present non-continuous non-perfect mostly occurs with verbs denoting concrete acts l (such as to come, to leave, to sail, to go, to dine, to break up, to graduate, to meet, to see, to remain, to start, to take place, etc.).
When so used it has a distinct modal force. It is used with the implication of the certainty of fulfilment2.
Consequently one can see that though the usage is a very old one, it has acquired a new meaning not observed in Old English.
Quite naturally, the present non-continuous non-perfect used in reference to the future occurs, as a 'rule, in a context
1 See И. П. Иванов a, op. cit., p. 41.
2 Q. Curme, op. cit., p. 356.
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indicating futurity (with such adverbials as tonight, tomor row, next week, etc.).
It is regularly found in adverbial clauses of time and condition if the verb of the principal clause denotes a future act, i. e. if it is used a) in the future tense, b) in the imperative mood, c) in the present tense and is followed by an infinitive with a future meaning.
/ will try and be at Throop Street if nothing interferes. (Dreiser).
Answer by special message when you g e~~t this. (Ib.).
/ want to speak with you before we meet at the theatre. (Ib.).
L. S. Barkhudarov and D. A. Shteling x see the cause of this usage in the modal tinge of the present non-continuous non-perfect. In their opinion'the present in the subordinate clause stresses the reality of the condition or circumstances represented by the subordinate clause. It leaves some room for doubt, however, because it does not explain why the usage is confined to definite types of clauses.
I. P. Ivanova 2 believes that the use of the present in the subordinate clauses of time and condition results from the fact that the idea of futurity is sufficiently clear from the form of the verb in the principal clause and the semantics of the conjunction.
The form of the verb in the subordinate clause expresses no temporal meaning of its own, and is adjusted to that of the principal clause, which accounts for the retention of the older form (of the present tense) in the subordinate clause.
§ 258. We can say that as compared with other groups of verbal grammemes the present indefinite non-perfect is the richest in temporal meanings, since it serves to represent an action as belonging not only to the present, but to the past and to the future as well.
The Past Non-Continuous Non-Perfect
§ 259. As a part of the verb system it may be said to present an action in the past (past tense) unspecified as to its continuity or entirety (non-continuous or common aspect) or correlation with other situations (non-perfect order).
1 Op cit., p. 409.
2 И П Иванова, op. cit., p. 43.
6 Хаймович и др
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Used in speech it can denote isolated acts, a succession of events, recurring actions, etc., the aspective colouring being dependent on the meaning of the verbs and the context it occurs in
E.g. I looked in her eyes again. (Hemingway).
/ looked in her eyes, put my arm around her and kissed her. (Ib.).
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