Adjective Grammemes in Speech 10 страница
1 See M. West and P. F. Kimber. Deskbook of Correct English, Lnd.,
1957, p. 168: "To whom did ijou give ifl" is correct, but stilted, it should
be used only in formal writing, or in speeches, sermons, etc. Elsewhere
"Who did цои give it to^" is the accepted form "Whom did you give it
to~>" is a hybrid and has no justification
2 The Structure of English New York, 1957.
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tives or pro-adverbs. This combination of function's is a typical feature of the connective pronouns.
In accordance with their meaning and the types ol clauses they introduce they fall into two groups: conjunctive pronouns and relative pronouns.
§ 165. Conjunctive pronouns serving to introduce subject, predicative object and appositive clauses (sometimes united under the general name of "noun clauses" ') present a curious combination of a demonstrative meaning \\ith that of a conjunction. In What he knows is no longer a secret (Christie) what is equivalent to the Russian то, что... . Hence the term condensed pronouns used by some authors. The essence of the matter is that the antecedent of such a pronoun is not expressed either by a noun or a noun equivalent, 'the pronoun itself doing duty for the antecedent as well 2.
Compound conjunctive pronouns in -ever (whoevet, whatever, wherever, etc ) have an emphatic nature owing to which they may be used to introduce adverbial clauses of concession as well.
Don't c/wnge you/ plans, whatever happens. (Hornby).
Whatever lie says is of no importance.
§ 166. Relative pronouns are likewise used to introduce subordinate clauses. What makes them different from conjunctive pronouns is a) that they ser\e to introduce but one type of subordinate clauses — the so-called 'relative' clauses — a variety of attributive clauses, and b) that they are always correlated with some antecedent in the principal clause.
E. g All the while these two solitary strollers did not for a moment think on coincidence, which lingers at man's elbow with eiery crowd in every town. (Bradbury).
Antonio walked from the lumberyard to a window where stood fine new beds. (Ib.).
One of those few evenings when he worked late she visited with any one of several neighbours. (Bradbury).
Relative pronouns, like interrogative and conjunctive ones, distinguish 'person' and 'non-person' in opposing who
1 See Л С Бархударов, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op cit ,
р. 87.
2 G. Curme, op. cit , р 81.
" 109
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used in reference to persons to which used in reference to non-persons.
Whose and that are applied both to persons and things.
§ 167. As mentioned above, both conjunctive and relative pronouns fulfil a double syntactical function in the sentence: they are used as some part of the subordinate clause and as a connective structural element at the same time.
E. g. They all smiled upon that genius who now circled them with his arms. (Bradbury).
The relative pronoun who introducing the attribute clause is the subject of the subordinate clause.
Reciprocal Pronouns
§ 168. These are the group-pronouns — each other and one another. They serve to express mutuality, as in They helped each other (one a n o't h e r).
It is traditionally maintained that each other implies only two and one another more than two, but this rule is often ignored, one another and each other becoming interchangeable.
We (two p,ersons) ran across one another one morning near the Menin Gate — the place they called Hell Fire Corner. (Oxenham).
§ 169. The reciprocal pronouns share the noun case system.
Common case Possessive case
each other — each other's one another — one another's
§ 170. Reciprocal pronouns are used anaphorically, usually with reference to the subject of the sentence (always plural). This accounts for the fact that I hey do not function as subjects. They mostly occur as objects (both preposition-less and prepositional) and attributes.
Resident hospital staff can get on each о t h e r's nerves. (Randall).
She was the offspring of two people who really lived for each other. (Randall).
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Indefinite Pronouns
§ 171. In grammatical tradition the class of indefinite pronouns is the most variegated of all '.- -It is said to include some, any, every, no (and their compounds), all, each, either, much, many, lew, little, etc., words of different lexical and grammatical nature.
We agree with V. N. Zhigadlo, 1. P. Ivanova and L. L. lo-fik 2 that only the pronouns some, any and their compounds really indicate things, properties, etc. in an indefinite way. Therefore only these pronouns will be regarded here as indefinite.
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§ 172. Indefinite pronouns can be pro-nouns (some^ any, somebody, somebody's, anybody, anybody's, someone, some one's, something, anything); pro-adjectives (some, any); pro-numerals (some, any); pro-adverbs (somewhere, somehow, anywhere, anyhow).
E.g. Some are wise and some are otherwise (pronouns).
/ read it in some book (pro-adjective). It was some years ago (pro-numeral).
§ 173. Like some other groups of pronouns the indefinite pronouns regularly occur in certain types of sentences. Some and its compounds usually indicating an indefinite quantity or quality as available 3 are mostly used in affirmative sentences (in about 75—77 per cent of all cases), whereas any and its compounds, without the connotation of 'availability', are generally used (in about 68—72 per cent of all cases) in interrogative and negative sentences4, or in conditional clauses.
E. g. There were a couple of periodicals and some letters
that had come by the second post. (Amis).
If she hasn't any sense of humour, it won't work. (Black) There mustn't be a n у American casualties, must there?
(Greene)
1 See, for instance, M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, op. cit.,
p. 88.
2 Op. cit., p. 63.
3 А. С. Б a p x у д а р о в, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op. cit., p. 97.
4 It also occurs with negative words such as without or hardly.
He has hardly any time. I had it without a n.y difficulty.
'ill
We must bear in mind, however, that some (and its compounds) occurs in interrogative sentences (very rarely in negative ones) to which an affirmative answer is expected or invited ' (that is, when the speaker proceeds from the availability of some object, property, etc.)- May f have s о т е paper?
Any (and its compounds) may be used in affirmative sentences in the meaning of "every", "no matter which": You can buy stamps at a n у post-office. (Hornby).
§ 174. The compound indefinite pronouns in -body, -one, and -thing denote 'person' and 'non-person', the former being indicated by the words in -one and -body, the latter — by those in -thing,
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E. g. A vague acceptance of this kind isn't any use to • anyone. (Amis).
You'll never do anything as good as that. (Maugham).
The compound indefinite pronouns in -body and -one have the noun system of cases represented in opposemes like somebody — somebody's, anyone — anyone's.
I can't see that it is a n у о п e's business but mine. (Heyer)
Negative Pronouns
§ 175. The negative pronouns are no, nobody, nobody's, none, nothing, neither, nowhere.
\ They can be used as pro-nouns (nobody, nobody's, none, neither, nothing), pro-adjectives (no, neither), as a pro-adverb (nowhere) and a pro numeral (none).
E. g. How many have you caught? — Nine as yet.
§ 176. Since Modern English admits of but one negation in a verbal construction 2 the negative pronouns serve to build up negative sentences. Her fiance is n о w h e r e to be seen. (Randall). N о girl has died in there to-day. (Priestley)
§ 177. Like the other pronouns m -body, -one, and -thing the negative pronouns distinguish 'person' and 'non-person'
Neither refers both to animate and inanimate objects (two of them). In neither case can I agree. Both smil°d but neither spoke (Heyer).
Nobody — nobody's is a case opposeme of the noun type.
i A S Hornby E. V. Gatenby, H Wakefield. The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. London, 1958, p 1222. '- See "Syntax", § 413.
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Generalizing Pronouns
§ 178. Here belong such pronouns as all, both, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, every thing, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, things, properties and circumstances.
This group includes pro-nouns (all, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything); pro-adjectives and pro-numerals (every, each, all, both, either); pro-adverb (every where) .
Alt, everybody, everything, everywhere, both may be said to have an inclusive, uniting meaning as opposed to every, each, either conveying a separating meaning '.
Unlike the indefinite and negative pronouns, the generalizing pronouns are not attached to any definite type of sentence.
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Quantitative Pronouns
§ 179. Here belong much, many, (a) few, (a) little, several, enough, which may function as pro-nouns (much, many, (a) few, several, (a) little, enough); pro-adjectives (much, (a) little, enough); pro-numerals (many, several, (a) few); and pro-adverbs (much, (a) little, enough).
| £. g. pro-nouns: |
------------------ Many preferred the pianist with
his wonderful eyelashes. (Locke). Enough is as good as a feast.
(Proverb).
| pro-adjective: |
| pro-numeral: pro-adverb: |
/ don't see much nonsense when a girl goes and kills herself. (Priestley).
Many women think so. (Daily
| for being |
Worker). He cared but little
| opposemes of |
| И о ф и к, |
conspicuous.
| § 180. Most quantitative pronouns form с comparison: | |||
| many | — more, | (the) most | |
| few | — fewer. | (the) fewest | |
| " much | — more, | (the) most | |
| little | — less. | (the) least. | |
| op. | 1 See В Н. Ж и г а д cit , p 67. | л о, и. П | Иванова, Л |
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It is characteristic that the quantitative pronouns indicating indefinite quantities may have the opposemes of comparison, whereas the numerals indicating definite quantities admit of no comparison.
Contrasting Pronouns
§ 181. Here belonged/- (others, other's, others'), another (another's) and otherwise.
They are united by the meaning "not the (object, property, circumstance) indicated" and contrast therefore with the demonstrative pronouns:
This, that (book) — another (book)
these, those (books) — other (books)
these, those — others
thus, so — otherwise.
E. g. I don't care for that dress, show me another, something in grey.
Friday won't do. I am dining out Come some other day.
Not everybody thinks so. You evidently think о t h- e r w i s e.
Other, otheis, other's, another, another's are used as pronouns, other and another as pro-adjectives, and otherwise as a pro-adverb.
When the pro-noun other denotes inanimate things, it has only a number opposite, others, like nouns of the book type. When it denotes persons, it has also a case opposite, other's, like nouns of the boy type.
In serving others she could forget herself. (Randall). The о t h e r' s hand shook slightly. (Black).
Another peculiarity of other is its combinability. Like a noun it may be used with the definite article or a demonstrative pronoun, as in Please, tell the others how matters stand. (Galsworthy).
Sheila: You are pretending everything is lust as it was before*
Eric: I am not, Sheila, but these others are. (Priestley).
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§ 182. The pronoun one stands somewhat apart, outside the classification discussed above.
We may speak of at least three-variants of this pronoun: 1) an indefinite pronoun, 2) an indefinite personal or generalizing personal pronoun, 3) a prop-word.
§ 183. As an indefinite pronoun it is usually a pro-adjective with the meaning "a certain" and refers to both living beings and inanimate things.
E. g. She married one Mr. Maitland. (Maxwell). One day an old man came to see me.
It has no grammatical opposites.
§ 184. As an indefinite or generalizhig personal pronoun one indicates only a person. It is a pro-noun. It has a case opposite one's and is correlated with the reflexive pronoun oneself.
In certain sentences the pronoun one may acquire the generalizing meaning of 'everyone' including the speaker.
E. g. One must do о п e' s duty. To the best of о п e's capacity one plans the next day. (Snaith).
In other cases one indicates 'an indefinite person', 'some person', 'any person', 'a person', etc., usually including the speaker.
One couldn't be excited about a person who looked so shy (Williamson).
Sometimes one serves to disguise the speaker, as in О п e just can't throw о п e' s self-respect to the dogs because of this sandy-haired boy. (Williamson).
§ 185. The prop-word one (or substituting one) is a pronoun used anaphorically, i. e. to replace some antecedent, a noun (or a noun combination) previously mentioned as in The work is a remarkable one. (Galsworthy) One, naturally, assumes the meaning of its antecedent.
It replaces, as a rule, countable nouns, both those denoting living beings and those naming inanimate things.
She is a woman too, she looks a rather nice one (Randall). And she has a nice figure, a really nice one. (Randall) It has a number opposite ones: Let me have some pens — I'd like new ones.
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The prop-word one may be preceded by the definite and the indefinite articles, the demonstrative pronouns, adjectives, nouns, numerals, participles, etc., like nouns, not pronouns.
My new dress, the nylon one, is a dream. (Daily Worker). This story, and it is a good and exciting one, will be a roaring success. (Daily Worker).
The function of one is often purely structural, to support the preceding adjectfve or to show that the preceding word is used attributively. Cf. the silk and the silk one.
Look at those bindings, absolutely tattered. It is time we had new ones.
§ 186. Summing up, we may say that the pronouns ere not united by any morphological categories, or syntactical functions. So they cannot be regarded as a part of speech.
On the other hand they constitute a separate class of words with peculiar meanings and references to the world of reality.
All of them are of double nature, as they combine their peculiar meanings with certain properties of definite parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, adverbs).
The drawing below gives an idea of this
| nouns | СЛ С .. 3 о . a о t_ a. |
| adjectives | |
| numerals | |
| adverbs |
THE VERB
§ 187. Analysing the verb in Modern Russian, V. V. Vi-nogradov characterizes it as "the most complex and capacious part of speech" J. Likewise, A. I. Smirnitsky 2 stresses the
1 В В.Виноградов. Русский язык \\ , 1947, p 422
2 А. И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op cit, p. 105.
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intricate nature of the English verb, the system of which includes, as if in miniature, some other parts of speech in the shape of the so-called non-finite verbs or verbids ' (the infinitive, the gerund and the participle) 2.
As a matter of fact, the verb is a system of systems. The main .division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs (finites) and the verbids. The finites can further be subdivided into three systems called moods 3. The infinitive, the gerund and the participle are also three systems within the verbids. Graphically this can be represented thus:
| ,' Finites | ||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Imperative |
| Verbids | ||
| Infinitive | Gerund | Participle |
Still, taken as a whole, the verb possesses all the features distinguishing a part of speech. So, naturally, we shall begin with those properties that characterize the verb as a whole. Only after that shall we dwell on the finites and the verbids separately.
§ 188. As a part of speech the verb is characterized by the following properties:
1) Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'action, process'.
2) Certain typical stem-building elements, such as the
suffixes -ize, -en, -ify, the prefixes re-, under-, over-, out-,
super-, sub-, mis-, un-, the lexico-grammatical word-mor
phemes 4 up, in, off, down, out, etc.
1 The term was suggested by O. Je^persen to avoid adding another
connotation to the word verbal besides a) "concerned with words",
b) "oral", c) "of the nature of a verb", d) "literal", etc M Bryant calls
it one of Jespersen's best contributions to terminology (op cit., p. 87)
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