Adjective Grammemes in Speech 8 страница
THE NUMERAL
§ 130. The numeral as a part of speech is characterized by
1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number',
2) the category of numerical qualification represented in
opposemes like seven — seventh, nine — ninth,
3) its unilateral combinability with nouns (three children,
the third child),
4) such typical stem-building suffixes as -teen, -ty,
5) its functioning as an attribute, less frequently as some
other part of the sentence.
§ 131. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number' is not to be confused with the grammatical meaning of 'number'.
a) The former is the generalization of a multitude of lexi
cal meanings of individual numerals (five, ten, fifty-seven,
etc.). The latter is the generalization of only two grammati
cal meanings: "singular" and "plural".
b) The plural number, as in boys, shows indefinite plural
ity, whereas the meanings of numerals, as in twenty, forty
are definite plurality.
c) Like any grammatical meaning the "plural" of nouns
is relative, dependent and indirect (§ 10). The lexical "plural"
of a numeral like eight is not relative, being as much corre
lated with the "singular" of one as with the "plural" of seven,
or nine, or eighty. The "plural" of eight is independent inas-
njuch as it is the lexical meaning of an independent word.
Its reflection of reality is direct as that of any lexical mean
ing
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1 Грамматика русскою языка АН СССР, ч 1, М.— Л , 1953.
§ 132. Numerals are usually divided into two groups — cardinal numerals (one, five, twenty) and ordinal numerals (first fifth, twentieth). The former denote some numerical quantity, the latter — some numerical order.
The difference between these groups is sometimes exaggerated to such an extent that they are treated as belonging to different parts of speech. For instance, A. I. Smirnitsky is of the opinion that only cardinal numerals form a separate part of speech, whereas ordinal numerals are adjectives 1.
Language facts do not support such views.
1 Each cardinal numeral has a corresponding ordinal one. Cf. seven — seienth, thirty — thirtieth, eighty-four — eighty-fourth, etc.
2. Both cardinals and ordinals qualify substances quan
titatively, as distinct from adjectives whose qualification
is qualitative.
3. Cardinals often denote numerical order like ordinals.
Cf. lesson fice = Иге fifth lesson.
4. Only numerals have the suffix -th. Nouns denoting
number (gross score, etc.) cannot be associated with it.
Formations of the type *grossth, *scoieth are impossible.
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5. If -th were regarded as a stem-building suffix, it would
be the only suffjx of this kind in the English language em
bracing all the words of a part of speech (in our case — numer
als) minus three (one, two, three).
6. The relation between ten and tenth resembles the rela
tion between boy and boy's. As words of the boy's type are
mostly used in the function of attributes, they might also
be declared adjectives.
§ 133. In our opinion, the pair ten — tenth forms an oppo-seme of the grammatical category of numerical qualification.
The lexical meaning of the two words expressed by the lexical morpheme ten- is the same. They are opposed only grammatically by the opposition of the zero morpheme in ten and the -th morpheme in tenth. This opposition is as regular as that of the zero morpheme of the singular and the -(e)s morpheme of the-plural. Even more so, in fact, because there are fewer exceptions. The meaning of the zero morpheme is that of 'numerical quantity' and the meaning of the morpheme -th is that of 'numerical order'. Like every grammatical
1 Op. cit., p. 163.
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meaning the meaning of "numerical order" is relative (always correlated with the meaning of 'numerical quantity') and dependent on the lexical meaning of the word, i e. the suffix -th does not express "numerical order" in general, but the order of the number named by the lexical part of the word.
In the opposemes one — first, two — second, three — third the meaning of numerical qualification is expressed by means of suppletivity and sound interchange.
The words /mlf, quarter, zero, nought, gross, score, etc. which have no ordinal opposites, but possess plural opposites are nouns, not numerals.
§ 134. The combmability of numerals is rather limited. As a rule, they form combinations with nouns Numerals usually precede the nouns they modify, but when a cardinal denotes numerical order it follows the noun. Numerals are, naturally, associated with countable nouns. In cases like the first love, the first snow instances of the phenomena are meant. The definite article in combinations like the second dance is easily accounted for, as the numeral singles out the object or event by indicating its position in a series.
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Numerals are, as a rule, not modified by other words. This negative combinability is also a characteristic feature of the part of speech.
§ 135. As to their stem structure English numerals fall into
a) simple or root numerals, such as one, two, three (up
to twelve),
b) derivative numerals formed with the help of the suf
fixes -teen (from thirteen to nineteen), -ty (from twenty to
ninety),
c) compound numerals (from twenty-one to ninety-nine) and
d) composite numerals, such as nine hundred and three.
It is owing to the remarkable way of forming composite
numerals that an unlimited multitude of numbers can be named with the help of a limited number of words.
It has been pointed out J that numerals have a peculiar manner of building up compound and composite stems not observed in any other part of speech.
When a numeral of a lower rank follows a higher numeral their numbers are added, as in eighty-one - eighty -f one.
1 See А. И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op. cit., p. 165.
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If the order is reverse, the numbers are multiplied E. g. five hundred ~ jive X hundred. In two hundred and nine multiplication and addition are combined.
§ 136. Numerals are easily substantivized, acquiring noun features.
Let us by way of illustration take the following sentence from a school text-book in arithmetic: "In order to add two numbers add the units of one number to the units of the other, the tens to the tens, the hundreds to the hundreds, etc." Here the numerals tens, hundreds have many features in common , with the noun units. They have the lexico-grammatical meaning of 'substance', the 'plural', suffix -s; they have left-hand connections with articles, prepositions; they are used in the functions of objects. Other instances of the substantivization of numerals are: Arrival of Moscow eleven. (The Worker). Two can play at that game. We are seven. Form fours!
§ 137. The analysis of numeral grammemes in speech presents a picture largely similar to that displayed by adjectival grammemes. The frequency of their occurrence in the analyzed modern literary texts is as follows:
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cardinal grammemes — 84 per cent
ordinal grammemes — 16 per cent,
the unmarked members of the opposeme as less specific (here as elsewhere) constituting the bulk of numerals used in speech flow.
Below are combinability patterns of numeral grammemes arranged in tabular form.
| Pattern | Cardinal gram me me | Ordinal gram me me |
| (per cent) | (per cent) | |
| art. + num. -f- noun | 80 | 98 |
| noun -f- prepos. -f num. link-verb + num. | 8 | |
| other models (page ten, one of them, etc.) | 4 | 1 |
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§ 138. English and Russian numerals are similar as to their lexico-grammatical meanings, ways of stem-building, combinability and syntactical functions, but they differ greatly as regards their grammatical categories.
1) Unlike their English counterparts, Russian numerals
possess the categories of gender ( пятый — пятая — пяп ое )
case ( четыре — четырех — четырем , etc.) and number ( пер
вый — первые ).
2) There is a great difference between ordinal and cardi
nal numerals in Russian as far as their categories are con
cerned. Ordinal numerals resemble adjectives not only in
having the categories of number, gender and case, but in the
forms of the grammatical morphemes as well.
Cf. пятый — красный пятого — красного пятому — пятая — красная пятые — красные красному
Cardinal numerals do not possess the categories of number and gender (with the exception of один , два ). The case inflections are also different.
Cf. десять — десяти — десятью знать — знати — знатью
It is no wonder, therefore, that some linguists separate cardinal and ordinal numerals in Russian and regard the latter as adjectives. But this is certainly no reason why the same should be done in English (§ 132) where conditions are quite different.
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PRONOUNS
, § 139. It has been shown above that words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typical stem-building elements, combinability and functions.
The peculiarity of pronouns as a class of words is that they are not united by any of the above-mentioned features. True, they have certain grammatical peculiarities, but what unites them is the way they denote reality.
Pronouns are words serving to denote substances, qualities, quantities, circumstances, etc. not by naming or describing them, but by indicating them.
As words of the vocabulary pronouns have extremely general meanings. But in speech pronouns indicate particular objects or qualities. When a speaker says /, he refers to him-
self, i. e. to a particular person of definite age, height, colour of hair, etc. When another speaker says /, he also refers to himself, but this time it is another person with other features. Thus, the meaning of /, gereral as it is, remains the same, but the objects referred to are different.
The meaning of the pronoun such is "of the same kind", but one speaker may use such to indicate a definite colour, another speaker may use it with reference to some size, a third one to indicate a particular temperature, etc.
On the other hand, one and the same person may be referred to as /, you or he. depending upon who speaks. This and that may indicate the same object, depending on the relative position of the speaker and the object. Thus, pronouns can be defined as words whose meanings are very general and stable, but whose references in speech are particular, vari able and relative with regard to the speaker and the situation of speech.
We insist on the stability of meaning and the variability and relativity of reference, because many authors speak of the relative meaning of pronouns x. But when we ask What is this? referring now to the blackboard, now to a piece of chalk, we use the word this with the same meaning, "the object I point at" or "the object I demonstrate", and not with the meanings of "blackboard", "piece of chalk", etc. Those are only the objects of reference and not the meanings of the word this.
§ 140. Etymologically the word 'pronoun' means "a word used instead of a noun". This meaning reflects, to some extent, the role of pronouns in language. Owing to the exceptional variability of reference a pronoun'may replace hundreds of nouns with comparatively stable or limited references. This explains the fact that pronouns are used very frequently and form a considerable part of any text, though as a class of words they are not numerous.
But the role of pronouns is much greater than it can be inferred from the meaning of the word pronoun. It is not always that a pronoun is substituted for a noun. For instance, what noun does the pronoun it replace in It rains?
1 M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya, op. cit., p. 77; А. 'С. Б а р х y-даров, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op. cit., p. 70; А. И. С м И р н и ц-кий, ор. ей., р. 179.
Хаймович и др
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But what is more important, pronouns can be substituted «not only for nouns, but for other parts of speech as well. Traditionally, pronouns are divided into 'noun pronouns' and 'adjective pronouns'. In reality pronouns may also be used instead of numerals (Cf. twenty books — several books, many books) and adverbs (here, there, now, then). Using the prefix pro- in its meaning "instead of", we may, therefore, classify pronouns with regard to the parts of speech into pro-nouns, pro-adjectives, pro-numerals and pro-adverbs.
Thus, pronouns are a collection of words correlated with different parts of speech, which accounts for their not being united by any morphological categories or syntactical functions.
§ 141. Sometimes a pronoun is correlated with one part of speech only. But very often this is not so. In a part of speech, as we know, variants of the same lexeme may belong to different subclasses. The peculiarity of pronouns is that variants of the same lexeme may be correlated with different parts of speech. This in the sentence Is this the bike? (Saroyan) is a pro-noun, while in the sentence He gave me this bike? (Ib.) it is a pro-adjective. Here in He lives here is a pro-adverb, but in from here to Moscow it is a pro-noun.
§ 142. As pointed out by A. I. Smirnitsky 1, the boundaries of pronouns and those parts of speech with which they are correlated are rather fluid. The word this in this bike may be regarded both as an adjective pronoun and as a pronominal adjective, the word here — as a pronominal adverb and as an adverbial pronoun.
The relative references of the words to-day, yesterday, to-morrow are somewhat akin to those of pronouns, yet they are not relative enough because the words denote definite units of time, days. Qf. now or then 2.
It is no wonder, therefore, that there exist many words which are regarded as pronouns by some authors and as nouns or adjectives by others.
§ 143. Since pronouns form a class chiefly on the basis of their semantical peculiarities, it is but natural that the
1 Op. cit, p. 195.
2 А. И. С м и p н и ц к и и,
op. cit., p. 195.
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subdivision of pronouns into groups should be carried out on the same basis, though some grammatical peculiarities of each group are also taken into consideration. Pronouns may be divided into
1) personal,
2) possessive,
3) reflexive,
4) demonstrative,
5) interrogative,
6) connective,
7) reciprocal,
8) indefinite,
9) negative,
10) generalizing,
11) quantitative,
12) contrasting.
It must be borne in mind, however, that a pronoun may belong to more than one group at the same time. The pronoun whose may be treated as interrogative (or connective) and possessive. The pronouns one, one's, oneself may be grouped together as indefinite personal, or they may be classified separately one as personal, one's as possessive, oneself as reflexive, etc.
Personal Pronouns
§ 144. The personal pronouns "are the nucleus of the class. They are: / (me), thou (thee)1, he (him), she (her), it, we (us), you, they (them).
• The personal pronouns serve to indicate all persons and things from the point of view of the speaker who indicates himself or a group of persons including him by means of the personal pronouns of the first person — /, we. He indicates his interlocutor or interlocutors by means of the pronouns of the second person — thou (archaic) and you. All other persons or things are indicated by him with the help of the pronouns of the third person — he, she (for persons), it (for things), they (for both).
§ 145. Though all the personal pronouns are said to be noun pronouns or pro-nouns, it is only the pronouns of the third person thaLcan be used anaphorically, instead of a noun mentioned previously.
E. g. The dark thing was Ferse ... he was dead. (Galsworthy). The personal pronouns of the first and the second
Archaic.
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person do not in fact replace any names. In the sentence / am sure of it the pronoun / is not substituted for any noun because no noun can be used with the verb am no noun can denote the first person.
/
§ 146. In Modern English the personal pronouns have the category of case represented in two-member opposemes. But these opposemes differ from the case opposemes of nouns. The general meaning of "case" manifests itself in the particular meanings of the "nominative" and "objective" cases.
Ps.
I
II
III
Sg.
I — me
thou — thee lie — him she — her it - it
PL
we — us you — you
they — them
Case, as we know, is a morphological category with syntactical significance. The opposition of the nominative and the objective case is realized syntactically in the opposition of the subject and the object of the sentence.
E. g. She asked her.
With nouns it is different because a noun in the common case fulfils the functions of both the subject and the object. The pronouns you and it having only one form for both cases seem to resemble nouns in this respect. But by analogy with the majority of the personal pronouns you and it may be interpreted as having two homonymous forms each.
The pronoun of the second person singular (thou — thee) was formerly used in address as a form of endearment and familiarity and so came to imply contempt and has been ousted by you. Thou is no longer used in everyday speech, but still lingers in poetry and elevated prose.
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