Adjective Grammemes in Speech 16 страница
In the late summer of that year we I i v e d in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. (Ib.).
§ 260. Since it denotes an action which precedes the moment of speech, i. e. it is associated with a time limit, it is not very well suited to represent permanent actions l, in other words, it is less general in sense than the present non-continuous non-perfect, that is why it is but rarely used in 'omnitemporal', 'generic' meaning, though this is not altogether impossible.
E. g. Faint heart never won fair lady. (Proverb).
The idea conveyed is that what was true for the past is true for the present and the future. Likewise in It w a s ever thus 2. This is however, a purely literary device.
§ 261. The past non-continuous non-perfect is largely used in narration. This is, as it were, its main sphere as seen from the examples below. The share of this grammeme in narration with reference to the past is about 82.4 per cent.
My friend s a w the priest from our mess going by in the street, walking carefully in the slush, and p о и п d e~d on the window to attract his attention. The priest looked up. He s a w us and smiled. My friend motioned for him to come in. (Hemingway).
§ 262. The past non-continuous non-perfect functions as a relative tense when denoting a future act viewed from the past (with a modal tinge of certainty, see § 257).
E. g. I was duly informed that school broke in a fort night and my services would no longer be required. (Buck).
1 И. П. Иванова, op. cit., p. 46.
2 Quoted by M. Mincoff. An English Grammar. Sofia, 1958, p. 128.
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§ 263. Another instance of its relative use may be seen in cases like Tell her I died blessing her ' in which died denotes an act in the past as viewed from the future with a distinct subjective connotation of 'inevitability'.
The Future Non-Continuous Non-Perfect
§ 264. The future non-continous non-perfect is analytical in structure. It is built up with the help of the word-morphemes 'shall' and 'will'.
In certain cases it is no easy matter to say whether shall or will is a word-morpheme or a modal verb. In a sentence like / am afraid he will refuse to confess we cannot say with any degree of certainty that will is a pure word-morpheme without any vestige of its original modal sense. It is somewhat easier to tell a word-morpheme from a modal verb in oral speech because modal verbs, as a rule, bear a stronger stress.
I. P. Ivanova 2 believes that the obliteration of the modal meanings of shall and will has proceeded at a slow pace because their modal meanings easily go along with the concept of futurity.
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§ 265. Some grammarians (among them O. Jespersen 3, G. Curme 4 do not recognize the existence of the pure future in English since, in their opinion shall and will groups are in all cases modal phrases.
The fallacy of these views is proved by the following facts:
1) When the unstressed shall is regularly used for the 1-st person and the unstressed will — for the 2-nd and the 3-rd (in British use), as a rule, no original modal meanings of these verbs can be felt (on the whole).
E. g. I shall be forty next autumn. They will know it in due time. It will take place next month.
Note. We read, however, in Linguistic Change in Present-Day English: "The distinctions formerly made between shall and wilt are being lost, and
f
1 M Mincoff, op. cit, p 177
2 Op. cit , p. 55
3 Философия грамматики, М., 1958, p. 304—306.
* Op. cit., p 362.
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will is coming increasingly to be used instead
of shall ..... people increasingly use / would and
we would in contexts where previously should was normal" '.
2) In structures with the enclitic '// no specific modal meanings can be felt. As a language unit it conveyes the sum of its elementary meanings, so it presents an action in the future (future tense) unspecified as to its continuity or entirety (non-continuous or common aspect) or correlation with other situations (non-perfect order).
§ 266. In speech the future non-continuous non-perfect may denote future acts of practically any description — isolated events, continuous actions, habitual, recurrent acts, the nature of the action being specified by the context and the meaning of the verb.
E. g. It will en fail some hard work. (Daily Worker). Sometimes I am afraid I w i I I breakoffa finger as one break a stick of chalk. (Hemingway). / hope you will live forever. (Ib.).
The future non-continuous non-perfect occurs but seldom in narration, in which a chain of events is spoken of, because narration is<seldom referred to the future 2.
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Like the past non-continuous non-perfect it is not very well suited to denote permanent actions since it is associated with a certain time sphere (it represents an action which is to take place after the moment of speech). However, its use in the 'generic' or ornnitemporal meaning is not altogether impossible. What will be true for the future is viewed as true in general.
"Young men will b e young men", said the countess. (Jerome).
Cf. Как аукнется, так и откликнется.
Since the future tense denotes an action not yet realized but one that is to take place, that is, an action planned, expected, anticipated, etc., it is natural that the future tense often acquires a modal tinge of supposition 3.
1 Ch. Barber, op. cit, p. 134—135.
2 I. P. Ivanova, op. cit., p. 36.
3 An analogous modal colouring is observed in Russian. See В. В. В и-
н о г р а д о в, op. cit., p. 575.
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Hence the not uncommon use of the future non-continuous non-perfect to express supposition with reference to the present.
That w i I I b e your British hospital? (Randall).
The Present Continuous Non-Perfect
§ 267. The basic meaning of the present continuous non-perfect as a language unit, resulting from the synthesis of its elementary grammatical meanings is to denote an action as a concrete process viewed in its progress (the continuous aspect) associated with the present (the present tense) and unspecified as to its correlation with other situations (non-perfect order).
E. g. You ought not to talk that way when lam just s p e a k i n g foi your own good. (Lewis).
§ 268. Since it functions to indicate an action in its development when used in speech it often serves as a sort of background or framework to another action in the present, which is mostly of habitual, recurrent nature 1.
E. g. Whenever she is planning a party she always throws herself into it heart and soul. (Randall).
When employed with such adverbs as always, ever, con stantly, continually, perpetually 2, etc. it expresses a continuous uninterrupted action. The lexical meanings of the adverbs neutralize the meaning of the continuous aspect (a concrete process of limited duration), but the latter suggests a greater intensity, contributing to the emotional effect 3.
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E. g.x "It looks to me", continued Soames, "as if she were sweeter on him than he is on her. She i s always following him about". (Galsworthy).
The present continuous non-perfect here, obviously, savours of irony blended with disapproval.
The present continuous non-perfect is, as it were "more emotional" than the present non-continuous non-perfect.
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325.
Есперсен. Философия грамматики. М., 1958, p. И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op cit., p 326.
3 А И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op. cit., р. 326—327; Г. Н. В о р о н-ц о в a, op. cit., p. 191.
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G. Curme 1 says that the continuous aspect "is charged f with feeling".
Hence it is a favourite in lively style.
E. g. How many decorations have you got, Ettore? asked
the vice-consul. He's got everything. He's the boy \ they are г и n n i n g the war for. (Hemingway).
The present continuous non-perfect is sometimes employed to denote an action in the near future. Unlike the present non-continuous non-perfect with a future sense, this is not the continuation of the Old English usage.
I. P. Ivanova 2 thinks that the meaning of futurity in the present continuous non-perfect has developed out of its basic meaning: it denotes a process in its continuity which will be completed in the future. This is likely to lead to the possibility of using the present continuous non-perfect to denote an action in the near future. The usage is quite common
E. g. The doctor is coming soon. (Hemingway). / won't be in. I am dining out. (Maugham).
The present non-continuous non-perfect presents a future act as part of a fixed program, an act whose certainty is secured by certain objective conditions. The present continuous non-perfect often denotes a future act as springing from the will of the person indicated by the subject of the sentence 'd.
Hence the rarity if not the complete impossibility of sentences like The ship is sailing tonight.
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Another point of difference between the present non-continuous non-perfect and the present continuous non-perfect used with a future sense is the fact that the present continuous non-perfect may be so used without any accompanying adverbial modifiers of time, which is but seldom observed with the present non-continuous non-perfect.
Cf. We d i n e with the Robinsons on Monday. We a r e dining out.
It is natural that the present continuous non-perfect is employed in reference to the future in adverbial clauses of
1 Op. cit., p. 374.
2 Op. cit., p. 85.
3 I. P. Ivanova, op. cit., p. 86.
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time and condition ', when the action is viewed in its development 2.
It differs from the present non-continuous non-perfect in a similar function (apart from its aspective meaning) in indicating a more immediate future and being sometimes slightly incidental 3.
// you are writing home, give them my love.
It sometimes occurs with verbs which aie but rarely used in the continuous aspect 4 to stress the transitory, temporary nature of the action.
E. g. How are you liking your new lob? (Hornby). Is it tery tough going? he asked sympathetically. Are you hating it? (Randall).
When used with non-terminative verbs the present continuous non-perfect is really synonymous with the present non-continuous non-perfect.
Cf. / live in London.
I am living in London.
The difference lies in the fact that / live merely states an act, while / am living presents it in its progress and sounds more emotional and vivid.
The Past Continuous Non-Perfect
§ 269. As a "language unit this grammeme denotes an action in the past (past tense), viewed in its development (continuous aspect) and unspecified as to its being prior to some situation or not (non-perfect order).
When used in speech the past continuous non-perfect may serve as a framework for another action
E. g. The astounded male discovered that she was h а и - i n g a small rebellion of her own (Lewis).
Like the present continuous non-perfect it may be linked with such adverbs as always, constantly, ever, continually, perpetually, etc., in which case it denotes a continuous action presented with a marked emphatic force.
1 See p. 161.
2 See p. 134.
3 See M. Mincoff, op. cit., p.
"See § 221,-
146.
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E.g. He was always finding fault with everybody and they came to hate him very heartily. (Lovel).
It may occur with a relative meaning to denote a future action viewed from the past as in
They tola me the Italians were I e a v i n g the next morning. (Hemingway).
The past continuous non-perfect and the past non-continuous non-perfect of non-terminative verbs are synonymous.
Cf. He I a y on his couch thinking and Hewaslying on his couch thinking, though lay just makes a bare statement of the action, whereas was lying stresses its continuity, which makes it more expressive and picturesque.
This is, naturally, not the case with terminative verbs.
Cf. He died and He was dying (but the operation saved him).
Generally speaking, it might be said that the continuous aspect presenting an action in its development retards the narrative making one linger on descriptive scenes.
E. g. They drove the engine in reverse, then forward.
The wheels only dug in deeper. Then the car was rest ing on the- differential again, and the wheels spun freely in the holes they had dug. (Hemingway).
M. Mincoff makes an interesting observation that in literary narrative the continuous is sometimes used to give the result or consequence of a set of actions suggestive of a certain stability of mood. Such passages are usually introduced by some such phrases as soon after, next moment, three days later, etc *.
They quarrelled and he broke their engagement but three days later he was having tea with her at Claridge's. (Black).
With verbs not commonly used in the continuous aspect it emphasizes the transient, temporary, limited nature of the act, 2 as in / thought 1 wasbeing unusually considerate. (Wilson).
1 Op. cit., p. 148.
3 "The shift from 'He has been a loyal subject' to 'He was being a loyal subject' shifts the emphasis from an indefinite state of affairs to a definite action." W. Diver, op. cit., p. 158.
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The Future Continuous Non-Perfect
§ 270. If viewed as a language unit, it represents a future action (future tense) viewed in its development (continuous aspect) and not presented as prior to another act or situation (non-perfect order).
E. g. In the afternoon they will be quarrelling in the usual style, no doubt. (Heyer).
When employed with terminative verbs, it expresses a series of repeated acts in the future.
E. g. He'll be т e e t i n g all sorts of undesirable Qgople unless well looked after. (Grey).
When used i-n speech it sometimes differs from the present
non-continuous non-perfect and the present continuous non-
perfect employed in reference to the future'in presenting an
action which will result from the constraint of circumstances
irrespective of the speaker's will. The future continuous non-
perfect, as it were, brings to the fore the objective nature of
the action; in this case the continuous nature of the action
may be suppressed. When thus employed it is markedly
emphatic. ,
E. g. And now you'll be telling me that I've made a mess of it. I know you'll be wanting waffles. (Wilson).
The usage is so common that I. P. Ivanova ' is even inclined to think that the future continuous non-perfect is gradually developing into what she calls a "pure tense form".
As we do not recognize the existence of pure tense forms (unless they are those of members of tense opposemes such as (I) write—(7) wrote— (I)'II write) we interpret this meaning of the future continuous non-perfect as one of its secondary meanings arising in speech.
The Present Non-Continuous Perfect
§ 271. As a part of the language system it may be said to present an action as associated with the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-continuous aspect) and prior to some situation in the present (perfect order)
1 Op. cit, p. 91.
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E.g. I h а и е never h a d a baby and I've never even loved anyone. (Hemingway). / am terribly glad f v e met you at last. (Galsworthy).
\ou'v e seen Stella? Of course, three times. (Maugham).
In certain speech surroundings it may be used to express priority to some situation in the present taken in a wider sense, as it were, priority to the present in general 1.
Where you British irritate us is that you have lost the spirit of enquiry. (Galsworthy).
Parliament consolidates what has become public practice. (Galsworthy).
§ 272. When used with terminative verbs denoting an action capable of producing some tangible change in the subject or the object the action is connected with, the present perfect regularly acquires a resultative meaning unless the context shows that the action is presented as a repeated one.
E. g. I think we two have found the higher love.
(Shaw).
Our connection in the hotel has gone west and the
business is finished. (Maugham).
I've lost my nerve. Sid. I shall kill myself. (Ib.). But no resultativity is felt in Г ve often lost my head that way. (Lewis).
If a verb, though terminative, is one which does not denote an action affecting the state of the subject or the object, there is no connotation of resultativity.
It has occurred quite unexpectedly. (Rraddon).
§ 273. When employed with non-terminative verbs (or with verbs of double lexical nature used in their non-terminative capacity) the present non-continuous perfect often denotes an action as preceding the present moment and still going on at this moment. When so used it is often termed 'the inclusive perfect'.
1Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Ш т e л и н г, op. cit, p. 176.
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I. P. Ivanova г has produced cogent arguments to the effect that the inclusive sense is not inherent in the present perfect as such, but results from its environment, its being used in a certain context showing that the action still goes on; it is, as it were, one of its meanings.
E.g. I have been here all the time, operating. (Hemingway).
... In recent months there has b e e n in Paris a growing interest in your work. (Cronin).
If there is no adverbial, the inclusive meaning is not felt.
E.g. He ha s I i v e d in London.
It has been a terrible summer. You cannot be lieve how it h a s b e e n. (Hemingway).
§ 274. The present non-continuous perfect js regularly found in adverbial clauses of time and condition when the connotation of priority is implied.
E. g. When you have forgotten it you won't be so foolish as to talk about it. (Maxwell).
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