Adjective Grammemes in Speech 1 страница
CONTENTS
От авторов ............................. 5
Some General Remarks ..................... 7
Morphology
Introduction ........................... 11
The Structure of Words ..................... 12
The Classification of Words ............... ......... 19
The Combinability of Words .................. 28
Parts of Speech ............................... 32
The Noun ............................ 51
The Category of Number ................... 54
The Category of Case ..................... 59
Noun Grammemes in Speech ................. 65
The Adjective ......................... 75
Adjective Grammemes in Speech .............. 81
The Adverb ........................... 86
The Numeral .......................... 92
Pronouns ............................. 96
The Verb ............ .. ............... 116
The Category of Voice ................... 125
The Category of Order ................... 130
The Category of Aspect ................... 134
The Finites .......................... 138
The Category of Mood .................... 139
The Indicative Mood ..................... 142
The Category of Tense ...................... 142
The Category of Posteriority ................... 146
The Category of Person ...................... 148
The Category of Number ..................... 150
The Subjunctive Mood .................... 150
The Imperative Mood ..................... 155
Verb Grammemes in Speech ................. 157
The Verbids ............... . ........... 183
The Infinitive ........................... 187
The Participle ........................... 190
The Gerund ............................ 192
The Adlink ............................. 199
The Modal Words ......................... 202
The Response Words ....................... 201
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The Interjection...................................................................................... 205
The Preposition...................................................................................... 206
The Conjunction.................................................................................... 211
The Article............................................................................................... 214
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The Particle............................................................................................. 217
Syntax
Introduction............................................................................................ 220
The Structure of a Sentence....................................................... 233
The Classification of Sentences................................................. 240
Combinations of Sentences.............................................................. 246
The Simple Sentence............................................................................. 249
Parts of the Sentence ................................................................. 249
Primary Parts................................................................................... 251
The Subject.................................................................................. 251
The Predicate ........................................................................... 254
Secondary Parts.......................................................................... 255
Complements.................................................................................. 255
Predicative Complements................................................................. 256
Objective Complements................................................................... 258
Adverbial Complements....................................................... . . . . 263
Attributes.......................................................................................... 266
Extensions ............................................................................... 268
Connectives.................... v............................................................ 269
Specifiers ..................... v............................... -........................... • 270
Parenthetical Elements .............................................................. 271
\Vord-Order in Simple Sentences ........................................ 272
The Composite Sentence.......................................................... 278
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The Compound Sentence......................................................... 281
The Complex Sentence............................................................. 282
Direct and Indirect Speech....................................................... 292
Conclusion........................................................................................... 294
ОТ АВТОРОВ
Данная работа предлагается в качестве учебного пособия по курсу «Теоретическая грамматика английского языка» для институтов и факультетов иностранных языков.
«Теоретический курс» грамматики конкретного языка можно строить по-разному. Можно, например, не затрагивать таких общих и спорных вопросов, как слово, предложение, грамматическая категория, язык и речь, форма и содержание в языке и т. п., сославшись на то, что это общелингвистические проблемы. Но тогда возникает опасность, что, поскольку существует множество трактовок всех этих проблем, автор и читатель могут имплицитно исходить из разных трактовок. Еще хуже то обстоятельство, что без эксплицитно выраженной аксиоматики нельзя построить цельной модели структуры языка. Неизбежно придется при изложении каждой проблемы говорить о разных решениях в зависимости от исходных положений.
Можно строить «курс» на основе твердо очерченных и эксплицитно выраженных исходных положений, но тогда все иные трактовки останутся вне поля зрения читателя. Это хорошо для монографии, но вряд ли допустимо в учебнике.
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В данном учебном пособии делается попытка соединить эксплицитное выражение исходных положений с рассмотрением разных трактовок излагаемой проблематики. Исходные положения, на основании которых анализируются все описанные в книге явления, изложены в относительно больших «введениях» к разделам «Морфология» и «Синтаксис» и в небольшом разделе «Общие замечания» в начале книги. Здесь же даются ссылки на другие параллельно существующие мнения по затрагиваемым вопросам. В основном тексте пособия при изложении любой проблемы приводятся взгляды разных лингвистов (в общем более 100 авторов), но в конечном счете критика этих взглядов и решение проблемы даются на основании общих исходных положений.
Укажем на некоторые исходные положения пособия, не являющиеся общепринятыми.
Термин форма в книге употребляется однозначно, лишь по отношению к элементам плана выражения (звуковой или графической стороне языковых единиц), и противопоставляется термину значение, обозначающему элементы плана содержания.
Грамматические категории представлены как системы оппозиций с тождественными грамматическими значениями. Кроме общепринятых морфологических категорий, представленных такими оппози-цинми как table — tables, long — longer — longest, writes — is written,
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writes — is writing, writes — wrote — will write и др., мы на тех же основаниях выделяем некоторые, обычно не рассматриваемые, категории морфологии и синтаксиса, представленные оппозициями ten — tenth, will write — would write, writes — does not write и др.
В качестве основной единицы морфологического строя мы принимаем не морфему и не совокупность словоформ, называемую словом или лексемой, а так называемые слова в речи, 1 естественно выделяемые говорящим и слушающим в потоке родной речи минимальные, соотносительные с понятиями, двухплановые компоненты, относительно свободно сочетающиеся с другими подобными компонентами Мы не можем назвать эту единицу словоформой потому, что она одно временно и «словозначение» и потому, что термин словоформа не очень подходит к таким «неизменяемым словам'» как устно, вслух, над, milk deaf , above и т. п. Вот за этой общей для языка и речи единицей и закреплен в пособии термин слово (word). Мы используем соотно сительные термины лексема и граммема для обозначения соответ ственно ряда слов, объединенных тождественными лексическими значениями, и ряда слов, объединенных тождественными граммати ческими значениями.
В пособии систематически различаются и раздельно описываются парадигматические связи единиц в системе языка и синтагматические связи тех же единиц в речи.
Исходя из того, что задачей теоретического курса является не столько рассмотрение отдельных явлений, которые сами по себе могут быть очень интересными, сколько описание грамматического строя «зыка как системы, в которой каждое явление связано определенными отношениями с другими явлениями, мы обычно не останавливаемся на тех частностях, которым уделяется достаточное внимание в нормативных курсах грамматики английского языка, и отсылаем читателей к этим курсам.
В заключение считаем необходимым выразить свою искреннюю признательность за многочисленные ценные советы рецензентам нашей работы и редактору пособия Л. И. Кравцовой.
1 «...имеются в виду слова не как единицы словаря, не как лек семы, а так называемые словоформы, т. е. слова в той конкретной форме, в которой они встречаются в данном контексте» (Л. Р. 3 и н-д е р. Общая фонетика. ЛГУ, 1960, стр. 38).
SOME GENERAL REMARKS
§ 1. In this book the phoneme, the morpheme, the word, and the sentence are regarded as the basic units of language and speech. The definitions of these units have never been generally agreed on, yet following are some brief functional characteristics.
The phoneme is the smallest distinctive unit. The phoneme /b/1, for instance, is the only distinctive feature marking the difference between tale /teil/ and table /teibl/.
The morpheme ist the smallest meaningful unit. Un-fail- ing-ly, for instance, contains four meaningful parts, i. e. four morphemes.
The word is the smallest naming unit. Though the words terror,terrible, terrific, terrifyconiam more than one morpheme each, they are the smallest units naming a certain feeling, certain properties, and a certain action respectively.
The sentence is the smallest communication unit. It rains is a sentence because it contains a communication (see Syntax, § 379).
§ 2. The phoneme, the morpheme, the word and the sen-Ic-nce are units of different levels of language structure. The phoneme is a unit of the lowest level, the sentence — of the highest.
A unit of a higher level usually contains one or more units of the preceding level. But the higher unit cannot be reduced to the sum of those lower units since it has a quality not inherent in the units of the lower level. For instance, the meaning <>l (he morpheme -ly is not inherent in the two phonemes
1 I he slant lines are used to indicate that the enclosed symbols («present phonemes.
it contains. The naming power of the word length is not inherent in the two morphemes it contains. The communicating power of the sentence It rains is not inherent in the two words it contains.
Conversely, a combination of units of a certain level does not make a unit of a higher level unless the combination acquires the properties of the units of that higher level. The combination of phonemes /dit/ does not make a morpheme as long as it is meaningless. The combination of morphemes -ing-ly is not a word since it names nothing. The combination of words of the teacher is not a sentence as long as it communicates nothing.
On the other hand, a single unit of a given level becomes a higher level unit on acquiring the proper qualities. For instance, the phoneme /o:/ makes a morpheme when it becomes meaningful, as in the word aw-ful. When the morpheme aw-acquires naming power, it becomes a word awe. When the word awe makes a communication, it is a sentence, as in the dialogue:
— What feeling did you experience?
— Awe.
Thus, with regard to the level of language structure there is no difference between a single unit and a combination of units. They are to be studied by the same branches of linguistics. If phonology (phonemics), for example, studies the phonemes of a language, it is also expected to study the combinations of phonemes in the language. The branch of linguistics that studies morphemes must also study the combinations of morphemes. If morphology deals with words, it should also deal with combinations of words. * Syntax must treat not only sentences but combinations of sentences as well.
1 This view is not shared by many linguists. In most grammars words are regarded as the object of morphology, while combinations of «ords are discussed in syntax, together with sentences. (See, however, Л. С. Б a p x у д a p о в, Д. А. Ш т е л и н г. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1965.)
-\. A. Hill thinks that combinations (sequences) of units are "areas lying between the levels. Between phonemics and morphemics is the area of phonotactics, the sequences of phonemes. Between morpheme and word is the area of morphotactics or the sequences of morphemes. Between the word and phrase (and clause) is logotactics. These areas have not as yet received like amonais of attention". (Readings in Applied English Linguistics, ed. by N. B. Allen, New York, 1958, p. 18.)
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§ 3. The units of each level can be analysed as to their inner structure, the classes they belong to in the language system (otherwise, their paradigmatic relations), and the combinations they form in speech (or their syntagmatic relations).
When studying the structure of a unit, we find out its components, mostly units of the next lower level, their arrangement and their functions as parts of the unit.
For instance, when analysing the structure of the word unreadable, it is not enough to say that the word contains three morphemes airanged in a definite order. It is also necessary to state the function of each morpheme, i. e. its relation to the whole word, the part it plays in making the word.
The units of each level divide into groups or classes whose members have certain components in common. For instance, the phonemes /b, d, g/ are united by their being voiced and plosive. The words deeper, longer, sweeter are united by the morpheme -er with the 'comparative' meaning.
As a group /b, d, g/ is part of the phonemic system of the English language, but in speech the whole group is not used together Each member of this group forms certain combinations with other phonemes, like /bi-/, /be-/, /bu-/, etc. The group deep — deeper — deepest is part of the morphological system of the Fnglish language. But in speech each member of the group is used separately and not always in combination with the same words. Cf. as deep as ..., deeper than ..., the deepest of ... '
§ 4 As we are often obliged to use the terms language and speech, we must have a working definition of these terms, however imperfect and incomplete. We shall assume then that the structure of various units and the classes they form (paradigmatic relations) are the sphere of language, while the combinations the same units form in the process of communication (syntagmatic relations) are the sphere of speech. *
It goes without saying that language and speech are interdependent and interpenetrating The combinabihty of every unit depends upon its properties as an element of the system
1 See numerous other definitions in Тезисы докладов Межвузовской конференции на тему «Язык и речь». М., 1962.
of a language (see §§ 34, 35). On the other hand, the properties of every unit develop in the. process of speech. Combinations of units may become stable and develop into new units, as , in the case of motor-bicycle, has written, at last, etc.
§ 5. The structure, classification and combinability of phonemes is studied by a branch of linguistics called phonology. The structure, classification and combinability of words is the object of morphology.
Syntax deals with the structure, classification and combina
bility of sentences. **
Note. The structure, classification and combinability of morphemes have not yet been studied properly. This accounts for the fact that so far there exists no special branch of linguistics dealing with the morpheme l, and all the information available is usually included in morphology.
1 Some authors recognize only two sets of language units: phonemes and morphemes. The branch of linguibtics studying morphemes — mor-phemics — is then understood to cover both morphology and syntax. Morphemic** then is another word for grammar. See, for instance, the following: "Morphemics, which includes everything in language (narrowly defined) from the smallest unit of meaning to the construction of the sentence, takes its name from a useful tool, the morpheme. The first stages of morphemics, up to syntax, are called tnorpholcgy". (Readings in Applied English Linguistics, ed. by Harold B. Allen, New York, 1958, p. 75.)
MORPHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
§ 6. There exist many definitions of the. term word and none of them is generally accepted. But in the majority of cases pedple actually experience no difficulty in separating one word from another in their native tongue. 1
Linguists point out as most characteristic features of words their isolatability (a word may become a sentence: Boys! Where? Certainly), uninterruptibility (a word is not easily interrupted by a parenthetical expression as a sequence of words may be; сотр. black — that is bluish-black — birds where bluish-black may not be inserted in the middle of the compound blackbird), a certain looseness in reference to the place in a sequence (cf. the parts of un-gentle-man-li-ness versus away in Away he ran. He ran away. Away, ran he.), etc. 2 This is reflected in -writing where the graphic form of almost- every word is separated by intervals from its neighbours. 3
Some difficulty is caused by different applications of the term word. 4 Linguists often apply it to a whole group like
1 E. Sapir writes (Language. London, 1922, p. 34) that even "the
naive Indian, quite unaccustomed to the concept of the written word,
has nevertheless no serious difficulty in dictating a text to a linguistic
student word by word ... he can readily isolate the words as such, repeat
ing them as units."
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