Substantivization of Numerals
Like adjectives, numerals can be substantivized. Substantivized numerals acquire the following characteristics of nouns.
1. A generalized grammatical meaning of 'thingness'.
2. Ability to be used in the plural, e.g.:
There are hundreds among the members of this club (J. Galsworthy).
3. Combinability with articles and prepositions. Cf.:
You haven't had a single five this term. You'd better work a bit harder next term (J. Povey, I. Walshe).
He got a first in Modern Languages (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
It's after four (E.A.M. Wilson).
We arrive on the first (E.A.M. Wilson).
4. The syntactic functions of subject and object. Cf.:
Two can play (at) this game (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson) - subject.
Formfours\ (E.A.M. Wilson) - object.
Cardinal numerals are more often substantivized than ordinal numerals.
On the other hand, some nouns turn into numerals, e.g. pair, dozen, score, etc. When they become numerals, they lose the grammatical category of number and the head noun is usually introduced without the preposition of, e.g.:
24 is two dozen (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
According to the Bible, we can expect to live for three score years and ten (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
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Numerals in Dates
Great Britain: 3(rd) January 1985 - the third of January nineteen eighty-five.
USA: May 4, 1985 - May fourth, nineteen eighty-five.
Numerals in Telephone Numbers
Each digit is spoken separately, i.e. no figure above nine is used. 0 is pronounced oh in Great Britain. In US usage, zero may replace oh. The figures are usually grouped rhythmically in pairs (pairing from the right), e.g.:
7325 - seven three two five.
But there is a tendency to use rhythmic triplets, especially for six-figure units, e.g.:
510364 -five one oh (zero) three six four.
If the two digits of a pair are the same, the word double is usually used, e.g.:
264454 - two six double four five four,
An exception is the GB emergency call 999, which is always nine nine nine.
In numbers which include a code number, the code is to be separated by a pause, e.g.:
01- 629 8495 - oh one six two nine eight four nine five.
The notional status of pronouns and numerals is debatable. If we take into consideration the criteria used by English grammarians for differentiating notional (or lexical) and structural (or function) words (see the lecture on Parts of Speech), we shall see that they stand much closer to function words.
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FUNCTION WORDS
Function words, as opposed to lexical words, render grammatical meaning. They serve two major roles: indicating relationships between lexical words or larger units, or indicating the way in which a lexical word or larger unit is to be interpreted. Function words are heterogeneous. D. Biber and his co-authors distinguish the following classes of function words:
1) determiners,
2) pronouns,
3) auxiliaries (primary and modal),
4) prepositions,
5) adverbial particles,
6) conjunctions (coordinators and subordinators),
7) wA-words,
8) existential there,
9) the negator not,
10) the infinitive marker to,
11) numerals (cardinals and ordinals).
Determiners
Determiners are function words used to specify the kind of reference a noun has. Determiners vary in the kind of noun head they occur with. The three classes in question are countable singular nouns, countable plural nouns, and uncountable nouns.
English grammarians give a wide definition of determiners. They include into them all subclasses of pronouns and numerals that are used with a noun head.
Sometimes more than one determiner occurs in the same noun phrase, e.g.: all the books, hi such cases, the determiners occur in a fixed order. English grammarians draw a distinction between three groups of determiners:
1) central determiners (the most common type): articles,
demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners, wh-determiners,
and specifying genitives;
2) predeterminers (which precede central determiners when
both occur): all, both, half and multipliers like double, once, and
twice;
3) postdeterminers (which follow central determiners).
Postdeterminers fall into two subgroups: a) ordinal numerals and the
semi-determiners same, other, former, latter, last, and next;
b) cardinal numerals and quantifying determiners.
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Articles
Articles are the most common and most basic of the determiners. The occurrence of the articles varies depending upon the type of noun. The indefinite article is used with singular countable nouns. It narrows down the reference of the head noun to one indefinite member of the class, e.g.:
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/ bought a newspaper (R. Murphy).
The so-called zero article signals indefmiteness with uncountable and plural countable nouns. Cf.:
He wants power (H. Innes).
They need teachers badly (E.R. Braithwaite).
The definite article combines with both countable and uncountable nouns. It specifies that the referent of the noun phrase is assumed to be known to the speaker and the addressee. The definite article makes the reference clear either by pointing to the situation (situational reference) or by referring to the neighbouring text - preceding (anaphoric reference) or following (cataphoric reference). Cf.:
He opened the middle window, filling the room with cold air (T. Chevalier) - situational reference.
// was a little bird And the bird was whistling overhead (D.H. Lawrence) - anaphoric reference.
The (kings she said were not funny... (D. Robins) -cataphoric reference,
Reference is generic when a noun phrase refers to the whole class rather than to an individual person or thing. In English, the indefinite article, the definite article, and the so-called zero article can be used for generic reference. The indefinite and definite articles are generally used with singular countable nouns, the so-called zero article - with plural and uncountable nouns. Cf:
A friend in need is a friend indeed (Proverb).
The devil is not so black as he is painted (Proverb).
Actions speak louder than words (Proverb).
Money talks (Proverb).
Possessive Determiners
Possessive determiners specify a noun phrase by relating it to the speaker/writer (my. our), the addressee (your) or other entities mentioned in the text or given in the speech situation (his, her, its, their). Possessive determiners correspond to personal pronouns (my - /, our - we, your - you, his - he, her - she, its - it, their ~ they). Possessive determiners make noun phrases definite. Cf:
My words at least had their effect (T. Chevalier).
Closely related to possessive determiners are specifying genitives consisting of a noun phrase and a genitive suffix, e.g.:
This is Peter's umbrella (V. Evans).
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Demonstrative.Jjetej^miriers
The demonstrative determiners this/these and that/those are similar to the definite article in conveying definite meaning. However, in addition to marking an entity as known, they specify the number of the referent (this, that - singular, these, those -plural) and whether the referent is near (this, these) or distant in relation to the speaker (that, those). In addition, the demonstrative determiners are stressed, whereas the definite article is almost always unstressed.
Like the definite article, the demonstrative determiners can make the reference clear either by pointing to the situation, or by referring to the preceding or following text. Cf:
/ saw Mrs. Jones this morning (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Shall we adopt these methods or those! (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Who -was that man J saw you talking to? (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Those sweets you gave me -were very nice (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
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Quantifiers
Some determiners specify nouns in terms of quantity and are therefore called quantifiers. They combine with both indefinite and definite noun phrases. In the latter case, they are generally followed by the preposition of. Cf.:
Most people take their holidays in the summer (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
But most of the day was spent upstairs (C. McCullers).
Quantifiers can be broadly divided into four groups.
1. Inclusive: all, both, each, and every. All refers to the whole
of a group or a mass; it combines with both countable and
uncountable nouns. Both is used with reference to two entities with
plural countable nouns. Cf.:
All children hate exams (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Don't go to that awful man and spend all that money (D. Biber et al.).
Both her parents are doctors (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Each and every refer to the individual members of a group and combine only with singular countable nouns. Each stresses the separate individual; every ~ the individual as a member of the group. Cf:
We want every child to succeed (M. Swan).
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Each child will find his own personal road to success (M. Swan).
2. Large quantity.
Many and much specify a large quantity: many - with plural countable nouns, much - with uncountable nouns. They are typically used in interrogative and negative contexts. Cf.:
Do you know many people! (R. Murphy).
They didn 't ask me many questions (R. Murphy).
Do you drink much coffee1? (R. Murphy).
There isn 't much milk in the fridge (R. Murphy).
Other determiners specifying a large quantity are a great/good many (with plural countable nouns), a great/good deal (with uncountable nouns), plenty of, a lot of, and lots of. Cf:
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There are a great many reasons why you shouldn 't do it (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
We received a good many offers of support (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
A great deal of money has been spent on the new hospital (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
He has had to spend a good deal of money on medicines (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
There are plenty of eggs in the house (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
A lot of people speak English (R. Murphy).
We 've played lots of matches this season (M. Swan).
3. Moderate or small quantity.
Some usually specifies a moderate quantity and is used with both uncountable and plural countable nouns, Cf.:
I've just made some coffee (R. Murphy).
There are some beautiful flowers in the garden (R. Murphy).
Determiners specifying a small quantity are a few, few, and several with plural countable nouns, and a little and little with uncountable nouns. A few and a little are close in meaning to some; few and little suggest that the quantity is less than expected. Cf:
Last night I wrote a few letters (R. Murphy).
I've read it several times (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A,C. Gimson).
He is not well known. Few people have heard of him (R. Murphy).
She didn't eat anything, but she drank a little water (R. Murphy).
In summer the weather is very dry. There is little rain (R. Murphy).
4. Arbitrary/negative member or amount.
Any denotes an arbitrary member of a group, or an arbitrary amount of a mass. It combines with both countable and uncountable nouns. Either has a similar meaning, but it is used with groups of two and combines only with singular countable nouns. Both any and either are typically used in negative and interrogative contexts. Cf.:
They didn 'I make any mistakes (R. Murphy).
Are there any letters for me this morning*? (R. Murphy).
/ haven't got any money (R. Murphy).
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Have you got any money'? (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
She's lived in London and Manchester, but doesn 't like either city very much (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
No and neither have negative reference, the former -generally, the latter - with reference to two entities. Cf.:
/ have no socks (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Neither road is very good (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Numerals
Cardinal numerals are related to quantifiers, but differ from them in providing a numerical rather than a more general specification. Ordinal numerals specify nouns in terms of order. They are similar to the so-called semi-determiners. Cf.:
Brazil beat France by two goals to one (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
That's the second time you've asked me that (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
When the two types of numerals occur together in one noun phrase, ordinal numerals normally precede cardinal numerals, e.g.:
In the first two minutes of the match, the Garden School boys came very close to the City School's goal... (L.A. Hill).
Semi-determ iners
In addition to determiners proper, there are some determiner-like words which are often described as adjectives. However, they differ from adjectives in that they have no descriptive meaning and primarily serve to specify the reference of the noun. Moreover, they are characterized by special co-occurrence patterns with other determiners. Most semi-determiners co-occur only with the definite article. There are four major pairings of semi-determiners: same and other, former and latter; last and next; certain and such.
1. Same and other.
Same may be added after the definite article to emphasize that the reference is exactly to the person or thing mentioned before,
e.g.-
That's the same man that asked me for money yesterday
(M. Swan).
Other is the opposite of same and specifies that the reference is to something or somebody different from the person or thing mentioned previously. It may be added after the definite article, the indefinite article (taking the form another), and possessive determiners, or it may occur as the only determiner in indefinite noun phrases, e.g.:
She is cleverer than the other girls in her class (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Will you have another cup of tea? (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
2. Former and latter.
Former and latter may be added after the definite article to discriminate between the first and the second of two things or people already mentioned. Cf.:
Of Nigeria and Ghana, the former country has the larger population (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
If offered red or white, I'd choose the latter wine (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Former and latter can also be used with reference to time.
3. Last and next.
Last and next are like ordinal numerals in specifying items in terms of order. They regularly combine with the definite article or some other definite determiner, except when used in deictic time expressions, with present time as the situational point of reference (such as last week, next Thursday, etc.). Cf.:
George was the last person to arrive (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
When you 've finished this chapter go on to the next one (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
We went there last Sunday and we're again going next Sunday (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
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4. Certain and such.
Certain and such differ from the other semi-determiners in being used only in indefinite noun phrases. Certain singles out a specific person/thing or some specific people/things. Such refers to a person/thing or people/things of a particular kind. Cf.:
There are certain reasons why this information cannot be made public (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Such people as him shouldn't be allowed here (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Wh-determiners
^-determiners are used as interrogative clause markers and relativizers (i.e. words that introduce relative clauses). Cf:
Whose house is this? (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Which shoes shall I wear, the red ones or the brown ones? (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
That's the man whose house was burned down (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
/ told him to go to a doctor, which aavice he took (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
Pronouns
D. Biber and his co-authors refer to function words those pronouns that are used absolutely, without a head noun. They regard them as function words because they do not give a detailed specification, but serve as pointers requiring the listener or reader to find the exact meaning in the surrounding text or in the speech situation, e.g.:
/ saw the accident (The New Webster's Grammar Guide) -personal pronoun.
Jane saw me at the game (The New Webster's Grammar Guide) - personal pronoun.
Who told you this? (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English) - demonstrative pronoun.
She hurt herself (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English) - reflexive pronoun.
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They told each other about their families (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English) - reciprocal pronoun equivalent.
But this dog isn't mine! It's his (V. Evans) - possessive
pronouns.
Somebody took my coat (The New Webster's Grammar Guide) - indefinite pronoun.
Which is your car? (The New Webster's Grammar Guide) -interrogative pronoun.
This is the dog which was lost (The New Webster's Grammar Guide) - relative pronoun.
In addition to pronouns, there are some other function words which recapitulate a neighbouring expression, with the effect of reducing grammatical complexity. The following are the most important.
1. The pro-form so, which replaces clauses or verb
complements, e.g.:
Do you think it will rain? - Yes, I think so (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
2. The pro-predicates do and do so. Cf.:
She likes jazz, and I do as well (M. Swan).
Put the car away, please, - I've already done so (M. Swan).
Auxiliaries
D. Biber and his co-authors draw a distinction between auxiliaries proper (or primary auxiliaries) and modal auxiliaries. The primary auxiliaries specify the morphological categories of the lexical verb. The modal auxiliaries are largely concerned with expressing 'modality', i.e. such concepts as ability, permission, necessity, obligation, etc. Cf.:
He has just painted the room (V. Evans) - primary auxiliary, perfect phase.
You must follow (he school rules (V. Evans) - modal auxiliary, obligation.
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Prepositions
Tradition says that prepositions are function words that indicate relations between nouns or noun equivalents and some other words in the sentence, e.g.:
1) to think of somebody (the preposition of indicates the
relations between the pronoun somebody and the verb to think);
2) free from danger (the preposition from shows the relations
between the noun danger and the adjective free).
Many prepositions in English correspond to case inflections in other languages.
According to B.A. liyish, prepositions express relations between objects of extra linguistic reality. For instance, in the sentence The ball is in the box (V. Evans), the preposition in indicates relations in space between two things: the ball and the box.
The latter seems highly debatable. Being a linguistic notion, the preposition cannot serve the purpose of expressing relations between objects of extra linguistic reality.
According to M.Ganshina and N.Vasilevskaya, prepositions have no lexical meaning. In the opinion of B.S Khaimovich and B.I. Rogovskaya, prepositions do have lexical meaning, but as opposed to the lexical meaning of nouns, adjectives and other notional (or lexical words), which always name things, properties, etc., the lexical meaning of prepositions is extremely general and weak because prepositions lack the naming function. Cf.:
The accident occurred under the bridge (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
The accident occurred near the bridge (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
The accident occurred above the bridge (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
The accident occurred behind the bridge (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
The accident occurred beneath the bridge (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
R. Quirk and his co-authors think the meanings of space and time to be most typical of prepositions, although they mention also such meanings rendered by prepositions as cause, goal, origin, and some others.
D. Biber and his co-authors draw a distinction between free and bound prepositions. Free prepositions have an independent meaning; the choice of a free preposition is not dependent upon any specific words in the context. In contrast, bound prepositions often have little independent meaning, and the choice of a preposition depends upon some other word (often the preceding verb). The same prepositional form can function as a free or a bound
preposition. Cf.:
There is a picture on the wall (V. Evans) - free preposition.
Good health depends upon/on good food, exercise and getting enough sleep (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson) - bound preposition.
Although some prepositions can be both free and bound, many prepositions are always, or almost always, free: above, across, against, along, among(st), before, behind, beside, between, beyond, during, inside, near, opposite, outside, past, since, till, toward(s), under, until, etc. In addition, phrasal prepositions are normally free.
As far as their makeup is concerned, prepositions fall into the following groups:
1) simple, e.g.: in, on, at, for, with, etc.,
2) derivative, e.g.: behind, below, across, etc.,
3) compound, e.g.: inside, outside, within, etc.
Some linguists speak of the so-called phrasal prepositions. Here belong the groups out of, because of, in front of, etc. Just like prepositions proper, they always stand before the word they govern, are introduced into speech ready-made, and have the same meaning of showing relations between a noun or a noun equivalent and some other word. Cf.:
A woman is getting out of her car (V. Evans).
Agnes was sitting on the bench in front of our house (T. Chevalier).
On the other hand, phrasal prepositions are different from prepositions proper. They consist of two or more words which are spelt separately. Such groups are on the way to becoming full prepositions and in grammars of the future may be classified as such. At present, according to G.L. Morosova, they should be looked upon as preposition equivalents.
Prepositions are invariable. They have no grammatical categories.
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Syntactically, prepositions are characterized by bilateral combinability with a right-hand noun or noun equivalent and a left-hand word belonging to almost any part of speech.
There are cases in the English language, however, when the left-hand connection is lost As characteristic examples we can quote the titles of some novels, e.g.: Under the Tree (Th. Hardy), Of Human Bondage (W.S. Maugham), etc. The meaning and function of the preposition become clear if we compare the actual title of W.S. Maugham's novel Of Human Bondage with a possible variant Human Bondage, without a preposition. In the title Of Human Bondage, the preposition of is used as it is used in the phrase speak of something. So, in the title the preposition implies that the author is going to speak of human bondage. That's why it will perhaps be right to say that the right-hand connection of prepositions is always explicit, while the left-hand connection may be implicit.
Being runction words, prepositions lack accentuation and syntactic independence in the sentence.
Since the word preposition comes from two Latin words which mean placed before, prepositions should be put before the nouns or noun equivalents they introduce. In informal style, however, the preposition is often placed at the end of the clause. The deferment of a preposition is obligatory in the following cases.
1. In passive clauses, e.g.:
Has the room been paid for! (R. Quirk et al.).
2. In clauses with infinitival phrases or infinitival predicative
constructions, e.g.:
He's impossible to work with (R. Quirk et a!.).
3. In clauses with gerundial phrases or gerundial predicative
constructions, e.g.:
He's worth listening to (R. Quirk et at).
With interrogative and relative noun phrases as prepositional complement, there are often alternative positions available: one formal - with the preposition in the normal place before the complement, the other informal - with the preposition deferred to final position. Cf:
At which house did you leave the car? (R Quirk et al.) -formal.
Which house did you leave the car afl (R. Quirk et al.) -informal.
The old house about which I was telling you is empty (R. Quirk et al.) - formal.
The old house which I was telling you about is empty (R. Quirk et al.) - informal.
In general, it is the most common and short prepositions which can be deferred, in particular spatial prepositions.
Adverbial Particles
Adverbial particles are a small group of short invariable forms with a core meaning of motion and result. The most important are: about, across, along, around, aside, away, back, by, down, forth, in, off, out, over, past, round, through, under, etc.
While prepositions have a special relationship to nouns, adverbial particles are closely linked to verbs. As opposed to prepositions that usually precede nouns, adverbial particles generally follow verbs. Adverbial particles are used in two main ways: 1) to build phrasal verbs, 2) to build extended prepositional phrases. Cf.:
My aunt brought up four children (R. Courtney).
We were going back to the hotel when it happened (D. Biber etal.).
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a function word which joins syntactic units: words, parts of clauses, clauses, sentences, etc. Traditionally, conjunctions are subdivided into coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions (or coordinators) link elements of equal rank. Cf.:
I fell and broke my arm (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Witle were rather proud of it (Th. Dreiser).
Subordinating conjunctions (or subordinators) serve to introduce a dependent clause, e.g.:
We came here because it was cheap (J. Updike).
When I turned around Agnes had gone (T. Chevalier).
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Coordinators are usually classified into additive (and), adversative (but), and disjunctive (or). Subordinators fall into three major subclasses.
1. The great majority of subordinators introduce adverbial
clauses: after, as, because, since, (al)though, while, etc. (See the
above given examples).
2. Three subordinators introduce degree clauses: as, than, and
that, e.g.:
Pro/its are higher than they were last year (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
3. Three subordinators introduce complement clauses: if, that,
and whether e.g.:
It was uncertain whether she would recover (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
As far as their makeup is concerned, conjunctions fall into the following groups:
1) simple, e.g.: and, but, so, though, etc.;
2) compound, e.g.: however, nevertheless, notwithstanding,
etc.;
3) phrasal, e.g.: as soon as, on condition that, in order that, as
if, as though, in case, etc.;
4) correlative. Correlative conjunctions usually consist of two
parts which always go together, e.g.: both ... and, either ... or,
neither ... nor, as ... as, etc. Care must be taken to make each
member of the correlative conjunction stand as closely as possible
to the words or other elements that they connect. Cf.:
We visited both New York and London (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Either the dog or the cat has eaten it (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
He drove as fast as he could (M. Swan).
Prepositions, in the opinion of M. Bryant, have much in common with conjunctions. First, many prepositions are homonymous with conjunctions, e.g.: after, since. Second, sometimes prepositions and conjunctions indicate similar relations. Cf.: / with my friend and my friend and I. As regards their form, both are invariable. Their meaning is abstract and vague.
The preposition differs from the conjunction in having a more uniform right-hand distribution (generally a noun). However, even
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functionally prepositions are acquiring more and more features in common with conjunctions. Just like conjunctions, prepositions now often occur at the head of a clause, e.g.:
There is much in what you say (J.B. Opdycke).
Since prepositions and conjunctions are close semantically, morphologically and even syntactically, it is, perhaps, possible to unite them into one group of connectives.
Wh-words
pfTi-words are used in two ways: as interrogative clause markers and as relativizers. Cf.:
What will happen to her nowl (H. Fielding).
Mr. Miller, who lived next door, moved to Canada (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
Existential 'there'
It is often described as an anticipator)' subject. No other word behaves in the same way, heading a clause, expressing existence, e.g.:
There is a blackboard in the classroom (V. Evans).
The Negator 'Not'
The main use of not is to make a whole clause negative, e.g.: I did not make up an answer fast enough (T. Chevalier). Apart from negating whole clauses, not has various other negative uses, e.g.: not all, not many, etc.
The Infinitive Marker 'To' I was glad to leave (T. Chevalier).
Numerals
D. Biber and his co-authors refer those cardinal and ordinal numerals to function words that occur as heads of noun phrases. Cf.: Four of the yen traders have pleaded guilty (D. Biber et al.).
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Three men will appear before Belfast magistrates today on charges of intimidation. A fourth will be charged with having information likely to be of use to terrorists (D. Biber et al.).
When cardinal and ordinal numerals are used as heads of noun phrases, they are substantivized and can be regarded as nouns, not numerals.
The conception of function words suggested by English grammarians seems extremely convincing. If we accept it, we shall avoid most of the difficulties that linguists face in trying to describe pronouns and numerals by analogy with nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (see the lectures on The Pronoun and The Numeral).
Since the article is the most frequently used function word, we shall dwell on it at greater length.
13. THE ARTICLE Is the Article a Word or a Morpheme?
According to J. Vendryes and M.D. Fridman, the article is a grammatical morpheme of the noun. Really, the article, just like the morpheme, functions as an exponent of grammatical meaning. In Bulgarian, Romanian and some other languages the suffix form of the article also testifies to its morphemic nature.
In English, however, the article, unlike the morpheme, is autonomous:
1) it never makes one word with the noun,
2) it can be separated from the noun by an adjective, e.g.:
He is a clever workman (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson).
That's why A.I. Smirnitsky, T.V. Sokolova and other linguists think that the English article is not a grammatical morpheme, but a separate word.
M.D. Fridman raises the following arguments against this point of view.
1. The criterion of solid or hyphenated spelling is not a reliable
one because it allows of various fluctuations.
2. It is not only words but also grammatical morphemes that
can move about in the sentence, e.g. the woman next door's
husband (M. Swan), where the grammatical morpheme - 's standing
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in logical connection with the noun woman is attached to the noun
door.
The second argument of M.D. Fridman sounds rather convincing. But the number of cases in which a grammatical morpheme is separated from the element it modifies is very small, practically it is limited to the genitive case inflection - '5.
M.D. Fridman thinks that the only objective criterion of an element being a word and not a morpheme is its ability to function in an absolute position. Since the article lacks this ability, it should be qualified as a morpheme.
M.D. Fridman is right: articles are practically never used independently. But the same is true of prepositions, conjunctions, etc. This syntactic 'defectiveness', according to V.V. Vinogradov, is one of the main points of difference between the so-called notional (or lexical) and structural (or function) words.
Thus, M.D. Fridman's treatment of articles as grammatical morphemes does not stand criticism. The article in English is not a grammatical morpheme, but a word. This conception is shared by the majority of Russian and foreign linguists.
Is the Article a Lexical or a Function Word?
Articles have all the characteristic features of function words: they lack the naming function, syntactic independence, morphological variability, and phonetic accentuation.
Meaning of Articles
The meaning of articles is very difficult to define. According to T.N. Sergeyeva, the English article has only lexical meaning. The conception of T.N. Sergeyeva does not stand criticism. The definite article originated from the demonstrative pronoun se, the indefinite article - from the numeral an, and pronouns and numerals are not lexical, but function words that have no lexical meaning.
Traditionally, the use of articles is qualified as a grammatical phenomenon, for it is said to be dependent on the semantic character and the syntactic function of the following noun.
On the face of it, the use of the indefinite article is really limited to countable nouns in the singular. On closer inspection,
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however, it becomes evident that there is no direct correspondence between the use of articles and the semantic nature of the noun. For instance, countable nouns in the singular are sometimes used without any article, while the so-called uncountable nouns are often registered with the indefinite article. Cf:
Man is mortal (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie, A.C. Gimson). A cold fear had come upon her (P.O. Wodehouse). The syntactic function of the noun does influence the choice of an article. Thus, predicatively countable nouns in the singular usually occur with the indefinite article, e.g.: It's a bad habit (L Updike).
Nevertheless, there are numerous exceptions from the rule. Thus, if the countable noun in the singular used predicatively is modified by a limiting attribute, it occurs with the definite article, e.g.:
This is the ring the Doctor gave me, my engagement ring (Ph. Incledon).
If a predicative noun denotes a post, which can be occupied by one person at a time, either no article or the definite article is used. Cf.:
Mr. Henderson is manager, not under-manager any longer (J. Lindsay).
If he tells you to do something, you do it, because he's the boss (Longman Language Activator).
No article is used with singular predicative nouns after the verbs turn, commence, appoint, elect, etc., e.g.:
Ken Livingstone was elected mayor of London in May 2000 (Longman Language Activator).
The predicative nouns son and daughter take the definite article when modified by an o/-phrase, though there may be several sons and daughters in the family, e.g.:
He is the son of Father's best friend (P.G. Wodehoase). All this leads T.N. Sergeyeva to the conclusion that it is neither the semantic character of the noun nor its syntactic function that predetermines the appearance of this or that article. Articles, in her opinion, are used exclusively in accordance with their respective lexical meanings.
However, articles are not lexical, but function words.
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Does it mean, then, that articles belong to empty words as j. Grimm, A. Gardiner and S. Mamonova think? M.L Steblin-Kamensky answers the question in the negative. If articles were empty words, there would be no difference between The book was criticized, on the one hand, and Book was criticized, on the other. But the two constructions are clearly not identical. The first is qualified as a normal English sentence. The second is looked upon either as grammatically wrong or as having quite another meaning, namely that some person, Book by name, was criticized.
Although articles lack the naming function, they are not devoid of meaning. Articles serve the purpose of rendering grammatical meaning. As far as the grammatical meaning of articles is concerned, four theories have been put forth.
1. The article is a means of expressing the meanings of
'definiteness - indefiniteness' [O. Jespersen; G. Curme;
E. Kruisinga; B.S. Khaimovich, B.I. Rogovskaya].
2. The article is a means of realizing the meanings of given
and new information [O.I. Moskalskaya; K.G. Krushelnitskaya].
3. The difference of articles is based on the numerical
principle [V.J. Propp].
4. The article is a means of distinguishing between the general
and the particular [A.I. Smiraitsky; M.V. Nikitin;
Z.K. Dolgopolova; M. Ganshina, N. Vasilevskaya; T.V. Sokolova].
The generally accepted is the theory of 'definiteness -indefiniteness'. Under the terms 'definiteness - indefiniteness', P. Christophersen understands 'familiarity - unfamiliarity' of the object which is spoken about. The person or thing becomes definite when spoken about for the second time, e.g.:
There is a cat on the sofa. The cat is sleeping (V. Evans).
A woman came to the door. Nick followed the woman up the flight of stairs (E. Hemingway).
Sometimes the whole situation is sufficient to show what is meant. Cf.:
The car -was going badly (D. Robins).
ffe tiptoed out of the room, trying not to wake the baby (Longman Language Activator).
The unique character of a person or thing also makes it definite, e.g.:
She looked up at the sky (E. Brace).
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The moon shone brightly (A.S. Hornby, A.P. Cowie. A.C. Gimson).
Paris is the capital of France (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
A number of linguists, however, point out quite rightly that the meanings of 'defmiteness - indefmiteness' fail to account for all the cases. Thus, S. Mamonova draws the attention of linguists to sentences of the type He has a mother, where the indefinite article cannot have the meaning of indefiniteness.
Proceeding from the theory of 'defmiteness - indefmiteness', we shall also fail to explain the use of the indefinite article with abstract nouns because the notion of indefmiteness is incompatible with their semantics. But they do occur with the indefinite article, e.g.:
He had a deep fear of death (C. McCullers). There was a short silence (J.D. Salinger). An original approach to the problem is suggested by O.I. Moskalskaya and K.G. Krushelnitskaya. The article, in their opinion, serves the purpose of differentiating between the two main parts of the sentence: the theme that contains known or given information and the rheme that renders new information. The theme is usually marked off by the definite article, the rheme - by the indefinite article, e.g.:
An old woman is coming into the living room (V. Evans). However, we side with V.P. Batanin who writes that there is no direct correspondence between the communicative division of the sentence into theme - rheme and the grammatical category of 'definiteness - indefmiteness'. Thus, in the sentenced clean hand wants no washing (Proverb), the thematic noun phrase clean hand comprises the indefinite article. As a result, the communicative principle can be regarded only as a minor factor in the use of articles.
The founder of the third theory is V.J. Propp. He thinks that the difference between the articles is based on the numerical principle. Both the definite and indefinite articles, according to him, denote 'oneness', but in the case of the indefinite article we have the incorporating class in view (eduHcmeenHocnib »a <pone OKpysicaioutezo e?.o MHOOtcecmea), in the case of the definite article the incorporating class is wholly disregarded (eduHcmeennocmb 6e3
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eeo Mnowtecmea). When the numerical principle cannot be applied, we do not use any article.
The numerical principle of V.J. Propp does not help us differentiate articles in Modern English, for the definite article, just like the indefinite article, presupposes the presence of the incorporating class. Compare the following two definitions of the indefinite and definite articles given by English grammarians. The indefinite article singles out one member of a class of referents named by the noun5 [A Practical English Grammar]. 'The definite article can be used before a count noun singular, a count noun plural, or a mass noun. One of its chief functions is to indicate that the speaker is referring to a particular example, or to particular examples, of a class of thing' [R.A. Close],
So, the presence or absence of the incorporating class cannot be regarded as a differential feature of the indefinite and definite articles since it is present in both. What is more, the numerical principle is easily applied only to countable nouns in the singular.
According to T.V. Sokolova, the most convincing interpretation is put forth by A.I. Smirnitsky, M.V. Nikitin, Z.K. Dolgopolova, M. Ganshina, N. Vasilevskaya and some other linguists who hold that the article is a means of distinguishing between the general (the indefinite article) and the particular (the definite article).
The indefinite article is used to refer a thing to a certain class and is therefore a classifying article. The definite article serves to single out an object or several objects from all the other objects of the same class. That's why the definite article is an individualizing article.
A.F. Rodionov is of opinion that the English article has both grammatical and semantic meanings. The classifying meaning of me indefinite article and the individualizing meaning of the definite article are also regarded by him as grammatical meanings. But if articles rendered only these grammatical meanings, every noun would have to be used with one of the two articles because all nouns either name or single something out. However, it is not so. Nouns often occur without any article. That's why A.F. Rodionov draws the conclusion that the grammatical meanings of classification and mdividualization are not the only meanings of English articles. English articles, in his opinion, possess certain semantic
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characteristics, too. Thus, the use of an article is usually a sign of the underlying object having quite definite boundaries (or form), e.g.: a table, the girl, etc. The absence of an article, on the other hand, testifies to a diffuse character of the boundaries or to the absence of any boundaries in the notion to be realized in the language, e.g.: milk, honesty, etc.
The conception of A.F. Rodionov seems rather convincing. We shall look upon the English article as such a function word that possesses the grammatical meanings of classification and individualization and a semantic meaning connected with a more or less definite character of boundaries in the underlying notion.
The next disputable problem is whether the grammatical meanings of classification and individualization are the only grammatical meanings of the indefinite and definite articles. B.A. Ilyish compares the following sentences.
The dog has come home (B.A. Ilyish).
The dog is a domestic animal (B.A. Ilyish).
There is a hill behind our house (B.A. Ilyish).
A hill is the opposite of a valley (B.A. Ilyish).
Of course, it is at once obvious that the dog in the sentence The dog has come home names an individual dog, whereas in the sentence The dog is a domestic animal it represents a class of dogs as distinct from a class of cats, horses, tigers, etc. The same can be said about the noun phrase a hill in the second pair of sentences.
The question, then, is whether the article itself (definite or indefinite) has two distinct meanings, or whether the meaning of the article is the same in the analyzed pairs of sentences, and the difference in meaning between them depends on some other factors. The majority of linguists think that both the definite and indefinite articles have several meanings. The definite article is assumed to have the following meanings.
1. A demonstrative meaning, e.g.:
This was the Major who so far had not spoken (J. Aldridge).
2. An individualizing meaning, e.g.:
The light in my study is poor (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
3. A generic meaning, e.g.:
The rose is my favourite flower (R. Murphy).
The indefinite article is assumed to have the following meanings.
1. A numerical meaning, e.g.:
For a moment she did not know what to say (D. Robins).
2. A classifying meaning, e.g.:
She is a doctor (R. Murphy).
3. A generic meaning, e.g.:
A blind man -would be glad to see (Proverb). <= Any blind man would be glad to see.>
B.A. Ilyish, however, is guided by the principle, 'Do not state differences if this is not strictly necessary'. In short, the principle amounts to this: whenever a word or a word form appears to have different meanings in different contexts, look for that element of its meaning which is always there and does not depend on any context, i.e. the invariant. According to B.A. Ilyish, both the definite and the indefinite articles have one grammatical meaning: the definite article - that of individualization, the indefinite article - that of classification. As for the difference in meaning between the sentences The dog has come home and The dog is a domestic animal, it proceeds from other sources. First of all, we see that the predicates in the two sentences belong to different types. The first sentence, The dog has come home, has a simple verbal predicate with the verb come in the present perfect; the second sentence, The dog is a domestic animal, has a compound nominal predicate with the copula be in the present indefinite. The verb in the present perfect is most likely to express a concrete action, while the group 'copula in the present indefinite + predicative' is most likely to express some general characteristic.
These grammatical points are supplemented by some lexical points, hi the first sentence, the verb come and the adverb home denote a concrete physical action and the place to which it is directed, while in the second sentence the predicative a domestic animal denotes a zoological idea and thus proves that by the dog we mean not an individual dog, but the whole species.
So, the grammatical meanings of classification and individualization seem to be the only grammatical meanings of the indefinite and definite articles. AH the registered modifications are predetermined by the context.
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