Participle I and the Adjective
Some linguists [e.g. R.A. Close] think that when the ing-form indicates a characteristic feature of the person or thing referred to by the noun, it turns into an adjective, e.g.:
We saw an interesting film about African wildlife (Longman Language Activator).
Other linguists [e.g. IP. Ivanova, V.V. Burlakova and G.G. Potcheptsov] are of opinion that the ing-form can be qualified as an adjective if it is not derived from a verb, e.g.: heartbreaking (there is no verb heartbreak}. If the ing-form is derived from a verb, it should be referred to Participle I, e.g.: loving, surprising, etc.
The argument put forward by I.P. Ivanova, V.V. Burlakova and G.G. Potcheptsov would have sounded convincing if adjectives had never been formed from verbs. But they are, and rather often. Cf:
eat - eatable,
act — active,
differ ~ different, etc.
According to N.A. Kobrina, E.A. Korneyeva, M.I. Ossovskaya and K.A. Guzeyeva, the process of Participle 1 adjectivization is a hard fact.
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The adjectival properties of Participle I come to the fore in the functions of prepositive attributes and predicatives. Cf.:
What a charming young man\ (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
He was charming, good-looking and in his early forties (Longman Language Activator).
Adjectivized participles behave like adjectives.
1. They can combine with adjectives proper, e.g.:
... Mrs. Foster was and had always been a good and loving wife (R. Dahl).
2. They can be modified by adverbs of degree, e.g.:
The Vice Chairman has a very charming wife and four children (Longman Language Activator).
3. Sometimes they form degrees of comparison, e.g.:
The most interesting thing about dinosaurs is the fact that they all died out so suddenly (Longman Language Activator).
4. Adverbs can be formed from them by the suffix -/>', e.g.:
loving ~ lovingly:
They looked at each other lovingly (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
Participle II
Participle 11 is the oldest non-finite form of the verb. In Old English, Participle II of strong verbs ended in -en (some irregular verbs still retain this suffix, e.g.: written, forgiven, etc.). Participle II of weak verbs ended in -d or -t.
For English grammarians, Participle II is the only participle because they unite Participle I and the gerund in one ing-form.
Many Russian linguists regard Participle I and Participle II as one non-finite form of the verb [e.g. V.N. Zhigadlo, I.P. Ivanova, L.L. lofik; B.S. Khaimovich, B.I. Rogovskaya; V.L. Kaushanskaya and her co-authors, etc.].
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But Participle II stands apart not only from Participle I but also from all the other verbals. It seems to be more of an adjective, than of a verb. In the first place, its main meaning is that of state resulting from a certain action. And the meaning of state is more common to adjectives than to verbs.
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In the second place, Participle n lacks the verbal categories of
phase and voice.
In the third place, Participle II performs the syntactic functions of attribute and predicative that are typical of adjectives. Cf.:
We passed through several deserted villages whose inhabitants had fled (Longman Language Activator).
The beach was deserted and unsafe for bathing according to the guidebook (Longman Language Activator).
In the fourth place, Participle II, just like adjectives, can be modified by adverbs of degree, e.g.:
I'm very pleased you've decided to come (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
In the fifth place, just like adjectives, Participle II is often made negative by the prefix un~, e.g.: finished— unfinished.
In the sixth place, Participle II may form part of compound adjectives, e.g.: state-owned.
In the seventh place, adverbs can be formed from Participle II with the help of the suffix -fy. Cf.:
excited - excitedly,
unhurried — unhurriedly,
Nevertheless, we are not justified in referring Participle II to adjectives because, just like other verbals, it has certain verbal
characteristics, too.
First, Participle II does not always have the meaning of state. When Participle II is formed from a non-terminative verb, it does denote state, e.g.: a -well-known writer. When it is formed from a terminative verb or a verb of double nature, it denotes a completed action, e.g.: a murdered man.
Second, although Participle 11 lacks the voice opposition, it does not mean that it has no voice meanings whatsoever. Participle II of transitive verbs is passive in meaning, e.g.:
The house was furnished by an interior designer (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
Participle II of intransitive verbs is active in meaning, e.g.: an escaped prisoner, a grown-up daughter (M. Swan).
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Third, Participle II can combine with objects, e.g.:
The army, surprised by the attack, fled into the woods (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
Fourth, Participle II can be modified by an adverbial, e.g.:
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The house, remodelled recently, is very attractive (The New Webster's Grammar Guide).
Fifth, it can take part in realizing primary predication as part of a simple verbal or compound nominal predicate. Cf.:
Mr. Hooper has gone to London (S. Hill),
In spite of himself, Val was impressed (3. Galsworthy).
Sixth, it can take part in realizing secondary predication in predicative constructions, e.g.:
/ really must have my watch repaired (M. Swan).
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