Strategies in problem solving.
There are 7 strategies in solving problems: retreating, attacking, going around the barrier, seeking expert opinion, changing the goal, changing oneself, crying, worrying and whining.
Retreating.Sometimes it is wise to retreat from the solving of a problem if after analysis it appears to be insoluble. It may be wise to retreat in order to build up new skills and develop new attitudes.
Attacking.To attack is one of the most humanly impulsive things to do when we are confronted with a barrier to the attainment of a goal.
Going around the barrier.Sometimes it is wise to discover new pathways to achieving a desired goal.
Seeking expert opinion.Seeking expert opinion is becoming more necessary because of the rapid development of specialized knowledge.
Changing the goal.After analyzing a problem, we may see that the attainment of a particular goal is beyond our capabilities. We may then see that an alternate, but attainable, goal may give us the same satisfaction.
Changing oneself.After the analysis of the problem we may find that the barrier lies within ourselves, so that the solution may involve changing ourselves.
Crying, worrying and whining. It results from our previous learning as children when these methods paid off in instant problem solving by mama or papa. Although ineffective, this method helps us to temporarily let off steam so that we can seek better ways of solving our problems.
Techniques used in brain study.
There are 3 methods, that most often used in studying the brain: injury ablation, electrical or chemical stimulation and electrical effects of neural activity.
Noting the kind of symptoms produced when tumors or injuries damage certain parts of the brain may give clues about functions controlled by the area. In experiments with animals it is possible to remove systematically parts of the brain and observe the kind of defect that results.
Sometimes ablation operations are performed on human patients. They are carefully studied to asses the effects of the operation.
Stimulating parts of the brain with mild electrical currents produces effect on behavior. From patient reports of sensations during stimulation, fairly accurate maps of the cortex have been obtained.
Chemical stimulation has also been widely used to affect behavior.
When neural actions occurs, slight electrical currents are produced. The brain as a whole also produces rhythmical electrical discharges.
Results obtained by these methods further our psychological understanding.
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Theories of attachment
There are three theories of attachment.
Imprinting.It has been suggested that human infants may form their social attachment. The basic social responses of the infant – sucking, clinging and smiling – are elicited by the mother. Experimental verification with humans is obviously unattainable for ethical reasons.
Learning theory.The infant becomes attached to the mother because her face and form have been associated with the alleviation of hunger and thirst. Gradually through this process child learns to love his mother and this love generalized to other.
Harlow experiments with infant monkeysand two surrogate mothers. By the end of 165-day period, the baby monkeys were spending an average of sixteen hours per day on the cloth mother as compared to an average of only one a half hours on the wire mother. Clearly the need for contact comfort produced more of an affiliation response than the need for hunger reduction.
A number of studies show that social deprivation causes severe disturbances.
Theories of emotions
William James believed that the important factor in our felt emotion is the feedback from the bodily changes. He seems to put the cart before the horse: “We are afraid because we run”.
Carl Lange arrived at a similar proposal and the theory is referred to as the James-Lange theory. The major objections to the James-Lange theory came from Walter Cannon, who pointed out that “bodily changes don’t seem to differ very much from one emotional state to another”. The internal changes occur too slowly to be a source of emotional feeling. The bodily changes associated with an emotion doesn’t produce the experience of the true emotion.
Emotional feelings were the result of join arousal to the cortex and sympathetic nervous system. This theory was extended by Bard and is known as the Cannon-Bard theory. The bodily changes and the experience of emotion occur at the same time.
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