Words and expressions to the lecture
meaning – значение
semasiology – семасиология
semiotics – семиотика
diachronistic – диахронический, исторический
forefront – передний план
notion – понятие
content – содержание
denotative – денотатный, предметный
to denote – обозначать
reflection – отражение
scope – размах, масштаб, объем
to refer to – ссылаться, относиться
feature – черта
to distinguish – различать
derived – производный
figurative – переносный
to confuse – путать
occasional – случайный
recurrent – периодический
tangible – осязаемый
form words – служебные слова
syntagmatic – синтагматические, синтаксические, горизонтальный
paradigmatic – парадигматический, вертикальный
is due – благодаря
complexity – сложность
connotation – коннотация, созначение
property – свойство
componental – компонентный
set – набор
interrelated – взаимосвязанный
proximity – близость
subject – подвергающийся
influence – влияние, влиять
aspect – аспект, вид
Questions to the lecture
1. What branch of linguistics is concerned with meaning?
2. When did the Golden Age of English lexicology and lexicography begin?
3. What is a lexical meaning?
4. What is “notion”?
5. What is a denotative (referential meaning)?
6. What set of meanings does every word possess?
7. Does the number of notions correspond to the number of words?
8. What do you know about componential analysis?
9. What is the relation between an object, a notion and a word meaning?
Lecture 4
Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary
The word stock of any language may be represented as a definite system in which definite aspects of words may be singled out as independent. Stylistic classification of vocabulary is very important.
Stylistically the word stock may be divided into three layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The aspect (common property) of a literary layer is its bookish character which makes it stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character. It makes it unstable and fleeting. The aspect of neutral layer is its universal character. This means it is unrestricted in its use.
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The words of the literary layer have no local or dialectal character. This layer consists of the following groups of words:
1) common literary; 2) terms and learned words; 3) poetic words;
4) archaic words; 5) barbarisms and foreign words; 6) literary coinages including nonce – words.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:
1) common colloquial words; 2) slang; 3) jargonisms; 4) professional words; 5) dialectal words; 6) vulgar words.
Common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term “standard English” vocabulary.
1. Neutral words form the bulk of the English vocabulary. They are the source of synonymy and polysemy. They are the source of producing new meanings. They are mostly of monosyllabic character, which led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of word-building. They have no special stylistic coloring.
2. Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and polished speech. Literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units.
3. Colloquial words are always more emotionally colored than literary ones. Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words and the upper range of colloquial words approach the layer of neutral words.
| Compare: | ||
| Colloquial | Neutral | Literary |
| kid | child | infant |
| daddy | father | parent |
| chap | fellow | associate |
| get out | get away | retire |
| teenager | boy (girl) | youth (maiden) |
| flapper | young girl | maiden |
1. Terms are directly connected with the concept they denote. They are mainly used in special texts dealing with some branch of science. With the increase of general education and the expansion of technique many words that once were terms have passed into common literary or even neutral vocabulary.
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This process is called de-terminazation, e.g. per cent, rate of interest, loan, to secure for money, etc.
2. Poetic and highly Literary Words are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. Poetical tradition uses many archaic words: e.g. quoth (speak), vale (valley) etc. Poetical words evoke emotional meaning. A poetism through constant repetition becomes hackneyed.
Poetic diction is the collection of epithets, periphrases, archaisms. These words were mostly used by the poets in the 18th century. Modern poets do not use many poetic words. They try to use words in strange combinations to make them expressive: e.g. “the sound of shape”, “night-long eyes”, “goldening whole”, “to utter ponds of dream” etc.
3. Archaic, obsolescent and obsolete words.
There are three stages in the aging process of words:
1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used, such words are called obsolescent, e.g. thou, thee, thy, thine, thou, makest, thou wilt; the ending-th instead of e (st), (he maketh) ye, garniture (furniture). The second group is obsolete words that have gone completely out of use, but they are still recognized by the English speaking community, e.g. methinks (it seems to me), nay (no).
The third group is archaic words proper. These are the words which were in use in old English and have been either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, e.g. truth (faith), a losel (worthless lazy fellow). Among them there are some historical terms: yeoman, goblet, baldric, mace.
Historical words have no synonyms. Sometimes archaic words are used for satirical purposes.
4. Barbarisms and Foreign words – are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. Some foreign words retain their foreign appearance. They are called barbarisms: chic (stylish), bon mot (a clever witty saying); en passant (in passing), an infinitum (to infinity).
As different from foreign words proper barbarisms have become facts of the English language.
Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries while barbarisms are usually given in most English dictionaries, e.g. Soviet, kolhoz, solo, tenor, luftwaffe, blitzkrieg.
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They may be called terms. But many former foreign words lost their foreign peculiarities and became common English literary words, e.g. scientific, methodical, penetrate, function, figurative, obscure.
Foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of language.
5. Literary coinages (Including Nonce-Words)
Neologism is a new word or a new meaning for an established word. Every period in the development of a language produces a great number of new words, i.e. those which designate new-born concepts.
The words coin because their creators seek expressive utterances. They may be called stylistic coinages. New words are usually coined according to a productive model for word-building in the language.
If a new word is approved of by the native speakers and becomes widely used, it ceases to be a new word and becomes part of general vocabulary.
Many coinages disappear entirely from the language. Conversion, derivation and change of meaning may be recognized as means by which literary – bookish coinages are formed, e.g. accessories – to accessorize (to provide with new dress accessories such as handbag, gloves etc.).
The process of eliminating an old meaning is slow and smooth.
Thus “admire” meant to feel or express surprise or astonishment. Now it means “to regard with wonder and approval”. Very many word building suffixes and prefixes acquired new meanings, e.g. askee, brinkmanship journalese, showmanship. Neologisms are often built by blending, i.e. combining two words into one by curtailing the end of the first component and the beginning of the second: cinemactrees, avigation (aviation + navigation), bit (binary + digit); rockoon (rocket + balloon).
New words are also formed by contraction: TRUD (Time remaining until dive), jeep (JP – general purpose car), GAX (gaseous oxygen).
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