PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION iv
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
FIGURES AND TABLES xiii
DEFINITIONS xvi
EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS xxv
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Liquefied gases....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Liquefied gas production......................................................................... 2
1.2.1 LNG production................................................................................ 3
1.2.2 LPG production................................................................................ 5
1.2.3 Production of chemical gases......................................................... 6
1.2.4 The principal products...................................................................... 7
1.3 Types of gas carriers.............................................................................. 9
1.4 The ship/shore interface and jetty standards.......................................... 12
1.4.1 Safe jetty designs.................................................................................... 12
1.4.2 Jetty operations....................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED GASES 14
2.1 Chemical structure of gases................................................................... 14
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2.2 Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.............................................. 16
2.3 The chemical gases................................................................................ 18
2.4 Chemical properties................................................................................ 19
2.5 Inert gas and nitrogen............................................................................. 23
2.6 Polymerisation........................................................................................ 25
2.7 Hydrate formation................................................................................... 27
2.8 Lubrication............................................................................................... 27
2.9 Physical properties.................................................................................. 28
2.10 States of matter...................................................................................... 28
2.10.1 Solids, liquids and gases.................................................................. 28
2.10.2 Spillage of liquefied gas................................................................... 31
2.11 Principles of refrigeration........................................................................ 31
2.12 Critical temperatures and pressures....................................................... 33
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2.13 Liquid/vapour volume relationships......................................................... 33
2.14 Ideal gas laws.......................................................................................... 33
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2.15 Saturated vapour pressure..................................................................... 36
2.16 Liquid and vapour densities..................................................................... 40
2.16.1 Liquid density................................................................................... 40
2.16.2 Vapour density................................................................................. 41
2.17 Physical properties of gas mixtures........................................................ 42
2.18 Bubble points and dew points for mixtures............................................. 43
2.19 Reliquefaction and enthalpy................................................................... 45
2.19.1 Enthalpy........................................................................................... 45
2.19.2 Refrigeration.................................................................................... 45
2.20 Flammability............................................................................................ 47
2.21 Suppression of flammability by inert gas................................................ 51
2.22 Sources of ignition.................................................................................. 52
CHAPTER 3 PRINCIPLES OF GAS CARRIER DESIGN 55
3.1 Design standards and ship types............................................................ 55
3.1.1 The gas carrier codes...................................................................... 55
3.2 Cargo containment systems................................................................... 56
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3.2.1 Independent tanks............................................................................ 57
3.2.2 Membrane tanks.............................................................................. 60
3.2.3 Semi-membrane tanks.................................................................... 63
3.2.4 Integral tanks.................................................................................... 64
3.2.5 Internal insulation tanks.................................................................... 64
3.3 Materials of construction and insulation.................................................. 64
3.3.1 Construction materials..................................................................... 64
3.3.2 Tank insulation................................................................................. 64
3.4 Gas carrier types.................................................................................... 65
3.4.1 Fully pressurised ships..................................................................... 66
3.4.2 Semi-pressurised ships.................................................................... 66
3.4.3 Ethylene ships.................................................................................. 67
3.4.4 Fully refrigerated ships..................................................................... 67
3.4.5 LNG ships........................................................................................ 68
3.5 Gas carrier layout................................................................................... 68
3.6 Survival capability................................................................................... 70
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3.7 Surveys and certification........................................................................ 70
3.7.1 Certificate of fitness......................................................................... 70
3.7.2 Other certification............................................................................ 71
CHAPTER 4 THE SHIP — EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 72
4.1 Cargo pipelines and valves..................................................................... 72
4.1.1 Cargo pipelines................................................................................ 72
4.1.2 Cargo valves and strainers.............................................................. 73
4.1.3 Emergency shut-down (ESD) systems........................................... 74
4.1.4 Relief valves for cargo tanks and pipelines .................................... 74
4.2 Cargo pumps.......................................................................................... 76
4.3 Cargo heaters......................................................................................... 83
4.4 Cargo vaporisers..................................................................................... 84
4.5 Reliquefaction plants and boil-off control............................................... 84
4.5.1 Indirect cycles.................................................................................. 84
4.5.2 Direct cycles.................................................................................... 85
4.6 Cargo compressors and associated equipment..................................... 91
4.6.1 Reciprocating compressors............................................................. 89
4.6.2 Screw compressors......................................................................... 91
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4.6.3 Compressor suction liquid separator............................................... 92
4.6.4 Purge gas condenser....................................................................... 92
4.6.5 LNG boil-off and vapour-handling systems..................................... 93
4.7 Inert gas and nitrogen systems............................................................... 93
4.7.1 Inert gas generators......................................................................... 94
4.7.2 Nitrogen production on ships........................................................... 97
4.7.3 Pure nitrogen from the shore........................................................... 97
4.8 Electrical equipment in gas dangerous spaces...................................... 98
4.9 Instrumentation....................................................................................... 99
4.9.1 Liquid level instrumentation.............................................................. 99
4.9.2 Level alarm and automatic shut-down systems ............................. 104
4.9.3 Pressure and temperature monitoring............................................. 104
4.9.4 Gas detection systems.................................................................... 105
4.9.5 LNG custody transfer systems........................................................ 105
4.9.6 Integrated systems........................................................................... 106
4.9.7 Calibration........................................................................................ 106
CHAPTER 5 THE TERMINAL — EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 107
5.1 Cargo transfer systems.......................................................................... 107
5.1.1 Hoses............................................................................................... 107
5.1.2 Hard arms (loading arms)................................................................ 108
5.1.3 Vapour return................................................................................... 112
5.1.4 Insulating flanges............................................................................. 114
5.2 Shore storage.......................................................................................... 114
5.2.1 Pressurised storage at ambient temperature................................... 114
5.2.2 Storage in semi-pressurised spheres............................................... 118
5.2.3 Refrigerated storage at atmospheric pressure................................ 119
5.2.4 Construction materials and design................................................... 124
5.3 Ancillary equipment................................................................................ 125
5.3.1 Pressure relief venting..................................................................... 125
5.3.2 Pipelines and valves........................................................................ 125
5.3.3 Pumps, compressors and heat exchangers.................................... 127
5.4 Instrumentation....................................................................................... 130
5.4.1 Product metering............................................................................. 130
5.4.2 Pressure, temperature and level instrumentation ........................... 133
5.4.3 Gas detection systems.................................................................... 133
5.5 Fire-fighting............................................................................................. 133
5.5.1 Water................................................................................................ 134
5.5.2 Foam................................................................................................ 134
5.5.3 Dry chemical powders..................................................................... 134
5.5.4 Carbon dioxide (CO2) systems........................................................ 135
5.5.5 Halon replacements......................................................................... 135
5.5.6 Inspection, maintenance and training.............................................. 136
CHAPTER 6 THE SHIP/SHORE INTERFACE 137
6.1 Supervision and control.......................................................................... 137
6.2 Design considerations............................................................................. 139
6.2.1 The terminal..................................................................................... 139
6.2.2 The ship............................................................................................ 139
6.3 Communications..................................................................................... 140
6.3.1 Prior to charter................................................................................. 140
6.3.2 Prior to arrival................................................................................... 140
6.3.3 Alongside the jetty............................................................................ 141
6.4 Discussions prior to cargo transfer......................................................... 141
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6.5 Ship/Shore safety check list................................................................... 142
6.6 Operational considerations..................................................................... 143
6.6.1 Berthing and mooring....................................................................... 143
6.6.2 Connection and disconnection of cargo hoses and hard arms....... 144
6.6.3 Cargo tank atmospheres................................................................. 144
6.6.4 Cargo handling procedures.............................................................. 145
6.6.5 Cargo surveyors.............................................................................. 145
6.6.6 Gangways and ship security............................................................ 146
6.6.7 Bunkering......................................................................................... 146
6.6.8 Work permits.................................................................................... 147
6.7 Fire-fighting and safety........................................................................... 147
6.8 Linked Emergency shut-down systems................................................. 148
6.9 Terminal booklet—Information and Regulation...................................... 149
6.10 Training................................................................................................... 150
CHAPTER 7 CARGO HANDLING OPERATIONS 151
7.1 Sequence of operations.......................................................................... 151
7.2 Tank inspection, drying and inerting....................................................... 152
7.2.1 Tank inspection................................................................................ 152
7.2.2 Drying............................................................................................... 152
7.2.3 Inerting—before loading................................................................... 153
7.3 Gassing-up.............................................................................................. 156
7.3.1 Gassing-up at sea using liquid from deck storage tanks................. 157
7.3.2 Gassing-up alongside....................................................................... 157
7.4 Cool-down............................................................................................... 159
7.5 Loading.................................................................................................... 161
7.5.1 Loading—preliminary procedures........................................................... 161
7.5.2 Control of vapours during loading........................................................... 163
7.5.3 Loading—early stages............................................................................ 164
7.5.4 Bulk loading............................................................................................. 166
7.5.5 Cargo tank loading limits......................................................................... 167
7.6 The loaded voyage................................................................................. 170
7.6.1 Operation of the reliquefaction plant................................................ 172
7.6.2 LNG boil-off as fuel.......................................................................... 173
7.7 Discharging............................................................................................. 173
7.7.1 Discharge by pressurising the vapour space................................... 174
7.7.2 Discharge by pumps........................................................................ 174
7.7.3 Discharge via booster pump and cargo heater............................... 178
7.7.4 Draining tanks and pipelines............................................................ 179
7.8 The ballast voyage.................................................................................. 179
7.9 Changing cargo (and preparation for drydock)...................................... 180
7.9.1 Removal of remaining liquid............................................................ 181
7.9.2 Warming-up..................................................................................... 182
7.9.3 Inerting—after discharge................................................................. 183
7.9.4 Aerating............................................................................................ 184
7.9.5 Ammonia—special procedures....................................................... 185
7.10 Ship-to-ship transfer................................................................................ 186
7.11 Conclusion.............................................................................................. 186
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