Структура аннотации и реферата
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TEXT 1WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO KEEP THEM FLYING?Each aircraft has its own tailored maintenance program, from light to intermediate to heavy checks. These checks are designated by letters, such as A, B, C, D, L, or Q. One 747-200 took about eight years to accumulate some 36,000 hours of flying time. When it did, it was time to head to the hangar for a heavy check, sometimes called a D check. The goal is to, as much as possible, return an entire airframe to its original condition. A D check takes between 15,000 and 35,000 hrs. of labor, and can put a plane out of service for 15 to 30 days, or more. The total cost averages between $1 million and $2 million. What a D Check Involves Once the aircraft is parked inside the hangar - a huge complex of aircraft service areas, support shops, and warehouses - the maintenance team goes to work. Worktables, platforms, and scaffolds are rolled into position for access to otherwise unreachable areas of the plane. Seats, floors, walls, ceiling panels, gаlleys, lavatories, and other equipment are opened or removed from the aircraft to permit close inspection. The aircraft is essentially gutted. Following step-by-step instructions, workers examine the aircraft for signs of metal cracks and corrosion. Whole sections of the aircraft’s landing gear, hydraulic systems, and engines may be replaced. Over time, in-flight vibrations, fuselage pressurization cycles and the jolts of thousands of takeoffs and landings cause cracks in the metal structure of the aircraft. To address this problem, aviation employs diagnostic principles similar to those used in the field of medicine. Both use such tools as radiology, ultrasonics, and endoscopy to detect what the human eye cannot see. A sheet of X-ray film is placed at a desired point on the engine exterior. Next, a long metal tube is placed inside the hollow shaft that runs the length of the engine. Finally, a pill of radioactive iridium 192— a powerful isotope—no bigger than a pencil eraser, is cranked into the tube to expose the X-ray film. The developed film helps to reveal cracks and other flaws that may require that the engine be repaired or replaced. During the D check, samples of the aircraft’s fuel and its hydraulic fluids are sent for laboratory analysis. If microorganisms are found in the fuel sample, antibiotics are prescribed. To kill jet-fuel bugs— fungi and bacteria that can get into fuel tanks through the air, water, and fuel—the tanks are treated with a biocide, a form of antibiotic. This treatment is important because the by-products of microbial growth can corrode the protective coatings on the surface of the tanks. Fuel probes in the tanks can also be affected and thus cause the pilots to receive inaccurate fuel gauge readings. As a result of normal wear, vibrations, and internal seal damage, fuel tanks can develop leaks. Looking somewhat like a scuba diver without flippers, a specialist dons special cotton coveralls, puts on a respirator connected to a fresh-air supply, and takes tools, sealant, and a safety light with him. Through a small opening in the bottom of the wing, he squeezes his way into the defueled wing tank locates the source of the fuel- tank leak, and seals it. Built into the wings of the plane, the fuel tanks of a 747 are a maze of walled compartments connected by small openings. Fuel tanks are no place for the claustrophobic. BOING 747-400 can hold more than 210,000 liters of fuel. This fuel capacity makes it possible to fly extremely long routes nonstop, such 5 from San Francisco, California, U.S.A., to Sydney, Australia - a distance of 12,000 kilometers. Three stories above the ground on the flight deck, an avionics technician inspects a built-in test-pattern display on the TV-like weather radar indicator screen. Pilots use this instrument to detect and avoid thunderstorms and turbulence that may be as far 500 kilometers ahead of the airplane. During the D check, safety equipment, such as life vests and emergency lighting, is checked or replaced. When a check of the passenger emergency oxygen system is under way, oxygen masks dangle like oranges on branches. Jet airplanes routinely cruise at altitudes of 6 to 11 kilometers above the earth, where the oxygen content and the atmospheric pressure are insufficient to sustain life. How is this problem solved? The aircraft’s pressurization system draws in outside air and then compresses it. This air is finally supplied to the cabin at an acceptable temperature. If the air pressure in the cabin falls below safe levels, oxygen masks automatically drop from overhead compartments. The emergency oxygen is supplied to the passengers until the aircraft descends to an altitude where the emergency oxygen is no longer needed. On some airplanes, oxygen masks are stowed in passenger seat-back compartments, not in overhead compartments. A heavy maintenance check is also the time to install new cabin walls and ceiling panels as well as to replace carpets, curtains and seat cushion covers. Galley equipment is disassembled, cleaned, and sanitized. TEXT 2HONDA ANNOUNCES NEW CIVIC TYPE R14 September 2006 – Honda Motor Europe Ltd today announced the eagerly awaited new Civic Type R, the successor to a model whose unique blend of affordability, exhilarating driving characteristics and everyday usability resulted in sales that exceeded all expectations. Given the outstanding performance credentials of its predecessor, Honda saw little purpose in increasing engine output. The new Type R therefore continues to be powered by a naturally-aspirated 2.0 litre DOHC i-VTEC engine with similar output, but reworked for greater refinement and responsiveness thanks to a new balancer shaft and a drive-by-wire throttle. The 201 PS maximum power output is now reached at 8,000 rpm (previously 200 PS at 7,400 rpm). VTEC variable valve timing and VTC variable inlet camshaft technology continue to underpin the engine architecture. Its exhilarating, high revving nature is retained, but the switch to high lift, long duration valve timing now takes place at a lower 5,200 rpm, and continues all the way to the 8,000 rpm red line. There is a new i-VTEC indicator just to the right of the digital speedometer which is illuminated within this rev range. TEXT 3AUTOMOBILEBy name auto, also called motorcar, or car is a usually four-wheeled vehicle designed primarily for passenger transportation and commonly propelled by an internal- combustion engine using a volatile fuel. The modern automobile is a complex technical system employing subsystems with specific design functions. Some of these consist of thousands of component parts that have evolved from breakthroughs in existing technology or from new discoveries such as electronic computers, high-strength plastics, and new alloys of steel and nonferrous metals, as well as from factors such as air pollution, safety legislation, and foreign competition. Passenger cars have emerged as the primary means of family transportation, with the total number in use worldwide expected to reach half a billion in the l990s, One-third of these are in the United States, where more than 1.5 trillion miles are traveled each year. Approximately 500 different models have been offered annually to U.S. car buyers, about half domestic and half foreign in origin. New designs have been brought into the market more quickly in recent years than in the past to permit manufacturers to capitalize on their proprietary technological advances. With more than 30 million new units built each year worldwide, manufacturers have been able to split up the total into many very small segments that nonetheless remained economical to market. New technical developments are recognized to be the key to successful competition, Research and development engineers and scientists have been employed by all automobile manufacturers and suppliers to improve the car body, chassis, engine, drive train, vehicle control systems, occupant safety, and environmental emissions, and further work by the industry is necessary to meet the needs of the 21st century. Vehicle design depends to a large extent on its intended use. Automobiles for off- road use in countries that lack service facilities must be durable, simple systems with high resistance to severe overloads and extremes in operating conditions. Conversely, the customers for products that are intended fir the high-speed, limited-access road systems in Europe and North America expect more passenger comfort options, increased engine performance, and optimized high-speed handling and vehicle stability. Stability depends principally on the distribution of weight between the front and rear wheels, the height of the centre of gravity and its position relative to the aerodynamic centre of pressure of the vehicle, suspension characteristics, and whether front or rear wheels are used for propulsion. Weight distribution depends principally on the location and size of the engine. The common practice of front-mounted engines exploits the stability that is more readily achieved with this layout. The development of aluminum engines and new manufacturing processes have, however, made it possible to locate the engine at the rear without necessarily compromising stability. SAFETY SYSTEMS From its beginnings, the automobile posed serious hazards to public safety. Vehicle speed and weight provided an impact capacity for occupants and pedestrians that produced great numbers of fatalities (13,000 in 1920) and serious injuries. During the 20th century, the rates of death and injury declined significantly in terms of vehicle miles (in the United States, for example, the rate of fatalities declined from 5.7 to 2.2 per 100,000,000 vehicle miles between 1966 and 1990). Because of the increased number of vehicles on the road, however, total fatalities have declined only slightly (from 53,000 down to 47,000 in the same example period). Most fatal accidents occur on either city streets or secondary roads. Federal expressway systems are relatively safer. Driver training, vehicle maintenance, highway improvement, and law enforcement were identified as key areas with potential for improving safety, but the basic design of the vehicle itself and the addition of special safety features received increased attention. Safety features of automobiles come under two distinct headings: accident avoidance and occupant protection. TEXT 4STEELSteel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon content between 0.2 and 1.7 or 2.04% by weight (C:1000–10,8.67Fe), depending on grade. Carbon is the most cost- effective alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but is also more brittle. The maximum solubility of carbon in iron (in austenite region) is 2.14% by weight, occurring at 1149 °C; higher concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures will produce cementite. Alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point. Steel is also to be distinguished from wrought iron containing only a very small amount of other elements, but containing 1–3% by weight of slag in the form of particles elongated in one direction, giving the iron a characteristic grain. It is more rust-resistant than steel and welds more easily. It is common today to talk about 'the iron and steel industry' as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate products. Though steel had been produced by various inefficient methods long before the Renaissance, its use became more common after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century, steel became a relatively inexpensive mass-produced good. Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, further lowered the cost of production while increasing the quality of the metal. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and is a major component in buildings, tools, automobiles, and appliances. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades of steel defined by various standards organizations. MATERIAL PROPERTIES Iron, like most metals, is not usually found in the Earth's crust in an elemental state. Iron can be found in the crust only in combination with oxygen or sulfur. Typical iron- containing minerals include Fe O —the form of iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2—pyrite (fool's gold). Iron is extracted from ore by removing the oxygen by combining it with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon. This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points. Copper melts at just over 1000 °C, while tin melts around 250 °C. Cast iron—iron alloyed with greater than 1.7% carbon—melts at around 1370 °C. All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used for at least 6000 years (since the Bronze Age). Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 °C, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily, so that smelting results in an alloy containing too much carbon to be called steel. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to tailor the resulting properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature and vanadium also increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue. Large amount of chromium and nickel (often 18% and 8%, respectively) are added to stainless steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface to inhibit corrosion. Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing. When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to remove the correct amount of carbon, at which point other elements can be added. Once this liquid is cast into ingots, it usually must be "worked" at high temperature to remove any cracks or poorly mixed regions from the solidification process, and to produce shapes such as plate, sheet, wire, etc. It is then heat-treated to produce a desirable crystal structure, and often "cold worked" to produce the final shape. In modern steel making these processes are often combined, with ore going in one end of the assembly line and finished steel coming out the other. These can be streamlined by a deft control of the interaction between work hardening and tempering.
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SAFETY PLAN
A fire safety plan is required in all public buildings, from schools, hospitals,supermarkets to workplaces. Generally, the owner of the building is responsible for the preparation of a fire safety plan. Once the plan has been approved by the Chief Fire Official, the owner is responsible for training all staff in their duties. Evacuation drillsare a very important part of the staff training associated with emergency evacuation procedures. Drills should be carried out in all buildings at least once a year. The drill should be checked, recording the time required to complete the evacuation , and noting any problems and deficiencies. After each drill a meeting should be held to evaluate the success of the drill and to solve any problems that may have arisen. What to do in case of fire ...
• If you see fire or smoke, do not panic. Remain calm and move quickly, but do not run.
• Alert the responsible staff and telephone the correct national emergency number.
Have someone meet the firefightersto tell them where the fire is. They can lose valuable minutes if they have to find it themselves.
• Rescue any people in immediate danger only if it is safe to do so.
• If practicable, close all doors and windows to contain the fire.
• Try to extinguish the fire using appropriate firefighting equipment only if you are
trained and it is safe to do so.
• Follow the instructions of your supervisor and prepare to evacuate if necessary.
• Save recordsif possible.
• Evacuate your area and check all rooms, especially changing rooms, toilets, storage areas , etc.
• Do a head count of all staff and report any people unaccounted for to the supervisor.
Safety signsand colors are useful tools to help protect the health and safety of employees and workplace visitors. Safety signs are used to draw attention to health and safety hazards,to point out hazards which may not be obvious and to remind employees where personal protective equipment must be worn. Color attracts attention and can be used extensively for safety purposes. For example, color can be used as an additional safety measure to identify the contents of pipes and the nature of the hazard. Different combinations of colors are used to indicate the various types of hazards. For example, the color red is used to indicate a definite hazard, while a potential hazard is communicated by the color yellow.
When employees are aware of the hazards around them and take the necessary precautions, the possibility of an injury,illness or other loss is minimized.
As shown in the table below, there are three basic sign categories used in the workplace:
• warning, to indicate definite or potential hazards;
• regulatory, to indicate which actions are prohibited or mandatory;
• information, to provide general information and directions.
Each category is distinguished by its shape and can be divided into subcategories having different colors.
Appendix IПри обучении чтению недостаточно усвоить информацию оригинала в целом или по частям, необходимо также научиться выделять главное содержание, кратко его сформулировать и представить в логической последовательности. Аннотирование (от лат. annotatio – замечание) и реферирование (от лат. refero – сообщаю) – это способы обработки информации и компрессии текста. В их основе лежат два метода мышления: анализ и синтез. Анализ необходим, чтобы выделить наиболее ценную информацию, отделить второстепенные сведения и данные, извлечь основное содержание оригинала. Одновременно с анализом текста следует осуществлять процесс его синтеза, т.е. соединять в логическое целое ту основную информацию, которая получена в результате аналитических операций. Так происходит смысловое свертывание текста и создается вторичный текст, содержащий основную суть первичной информации.
Как аннотация, так и реферат призваны передать основное содержание информации, имеющейся в читаемом тексте, в максимально обобщенном и сжатом виде. При аннотировании и реферировании сообщение освобождается от всего второстепенного, иллюстративного, дополнительного, сохраняется лишь сама суть содержания. Однако существует принципиальная разница между аннотацией и рефератом.
Аннотация лишь перечисляет те вопросы, которые освещены в первоисточнике, не раскрывая их содержания.
Реферат не только перечисляет все эти вопросы, но и сообщает существенное содержание каждого из них. Таким образом, аннотация дает только общее представление об источнике и является указателем при отборе первоисточников для чтения и дальнейшей научной работы, реферат же во многих случаях может вполне заменить сам источник, так как сообщает существенное содержание материала, основные выводы.
Процесс аннотирования и реферирования текста первичного документа (книги, статьи, патента и т.п.) в учебных целях следует проводить в три этапа:
1-й этап –это чтение исходного текста и его анализ – обычно несколько раз – с целью детального понимания основного содержания текста, осмысления его фактической информации (ознакомительное и изучающее чтение).
2-й этап –это операции с текстом первоисточника: текст разбивается на отдельные смысловые фрагменты с целью извлечения основной и необходимой информации каждого из них.
3-й этап – это свертывание, сокращение, обобщение, компрессия выделенной основной фактологической информации и оформление текста реферата в соответствии с принятой моделью реферата.
Структура аннотации и реферата
Изложение материала в аннотации и реферате должно проводиться в следующем порядке:
Предметная рубрика. В этом пункте называется область или раздел знания, к которому относится аннотируемый или реферируемый источник.
Тема источника. Обычно тема определяется наименованием источника либо формулируется самим референтом.
Библиографическое описание первоисточника.В этой части записывается на иностранном языке автор, заглавие книги или журнала, из которого взят текст, издательство, место и время издания. Затем эти же данные даются в переводе на русский язык.
Главная мысль аннотируемого материала.
Сжатая характеристика материала в виде плана. Здесь последовательно перечисляются все затронутые в источнике вопросы (главы, разделы, параграфы, абзацы).
Критическая оценка первоисточника. Эта рубрика может содержаться не в каждой аннотации.
Объем аннотации зависит от объема первоисточника и от того, сколько основных пунктов плана могут быть в нем выделены. При этом 6-8 предложений в учебной аннотации, характеризующие предметную рубрику, тему источника, его библиографическое описание и главную мысль, являются ее обязательными компонентами, а сам текст аннотации не должен превышать, как правило, 500 знаков.
Структура реферата в значительной степени напоминает структуру аннотации.Реферат сохраняет все пунктыаннотации. Однако автор реферата не ограничивается простым перечислением затронутых в источнике вопросов, а излагает его содержание (фактологическую информацию) в последовательности первоисточника по главам, разделам, параграфам, абзацам, сопровождая их выводами автора реферируемого источника и своими комментариями. В реферат включаются, как правило, фрагменты из первоисточника. Это обобщения и формулировки из первичного документа, которые в готовом виде переносятся в реферат (цитируются).
Таким образом, реферат содержит следующие дополнительные пункты:
Краткое изложение содержания.
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