Philosophy as General Methodology
Methods originate in practical activity as generalized devices that conform with the properties and laws of reality, with the objective logic of the things at the transformation of which human activity is directed. The methods of practical activity thus reflect the historically formed and socially consolidated modes of man’s sensuously objective interaction with the world. This was the basis for the formation of cognitive and later theoretical methods – sets of devices and operations directing the mind towards the path leading to the truth. Philosophy is a universal method, its subject matter being the most universal principles of thought of all cognition. Philosophical methods do not determine unambiguously the course of the creative search for the truth. In the final analysis the decisive factor here is practical life. The universal methods of philosophy are the necessary condition for the solution of various concrete tasks they do not replace the special scientific methods – rather they are given concrete form in these methods. Philosophical methods are devices for the study of objects with the aim of discovering in them the universal laws of movement and development manifested in specific ways in accordance with the specificity of the object.
Methodology is a system of basic principles or elements of generalized modes of the organization and construction of theoretical and practical activity. It is a particular area of philosophical knowledge.
The main philosophical methods are dialectics, metaphysics, phenomenology, hermeneutics.
Dialecticsis the method, by which we study development in its most complete deep-going and comprehensive form. Dialectics affords a reflection of the extremely complex and contradictory processes of the material and spiritual world.Dialectics is not a mere statement of that, which happens in the reality but an instrument of scientific cognition and transformation, an instrument for moving from the domain of non-knowledge into the realm of knowledge, a methodology of knowledge based on action and methodology of action based on knowledge. It is in this that the unity of dialectics as theory and method is manifested.
Metaphysicsis characterized by the static mode of thinking, by the veering of thought from one extreme to the other by exaggeration of some aspect of an object, such as stability, repetition and relative independence. A characteristic feature of metaphysics has always been one-sidedness, abstractness and the lifting of certain elements to an absolute.
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The Specific Place of Philosophy in Culture.
Functions of Philosophy
The phenomenon of culture reveals the role and place of philosophy in the life of man and society. Considering the essence and structure of culture, it is possible to determine philosophy as one of the components of culture. The concept of culture (from Lat. “cultura" meaning tilling) \is basically connected with something that is done well —not only what is done but also how and what for. Activity is a mode of man’s mastering the world. Culture is a kind of magic crystal that focuses all being. It is the creative principle of life of the individual and of society as a whole; it is not just an ability taken to the point of art but a morally sanctioned goal.
An ensemble of material and non-material values and of methods of creating them, and the ability to use them for the advancement of mankind and to transmit them from generation to generation, constitute culture. The starting point and the source of the development of culture is human labor, the forms of its application, and its results.
Material culture includes, above all, the means of production and the objects of labor drawn into the circle of social being. It is an indication of man's practical mastery over nature. Non-material culture incorporates science and the extent to which science is applied in production and everyday life; the state of education, enlightenment, health services, art; moral norms of members of society behavior; and the level of people's needs and interests. Culture is not simply a set, an aggregate of material and spiritual values. Culture is an integral system in which every element is closely related to others. The elements of culture are production, way of life, technique, politics, law, moral, science, philosophy, religion, art etc. They influence each other and everyday life of people. In the process of life being everybody is plunged in all types of culture to a certain extent. Society is an integral social-cultural organism in which the different types of activity of people – material and spiritual – provide the development of every element and connections between these elements in a historical process.
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In their intercourse worldview categories of culture form an integral image of the human world, they accumulate historically acquired social experience. These categories help man to realize and estimate his being purport and his unique place in the world; to systematize and to structure his individual and social experience. There are such universal categories as “human”, “society”, “consciousness”, ‘knowledge”, “good”, “evil”, “belief”, “hope”, “duty”, “dignity”, “conscience”, “freedom”, “beauty” etc, which pierce all spheres of society’s life.
Philosophy as a component of culture simultaneously carries out reflection on the elements of culture and universal categories which represent them. Philosophy plays an integrative role in the system of culture that determines its basic functions, namely, worldview, gnosiological, methodological, axiological, logical, praxeological, critical etc.
Worldview function – philosophy helps man to find and ground his life orientation, to clear out the essence and significance of life values and priorities. Philosophy does not only influence the formation and development of an individual’s worldview, but it investigates worldview as a social phenomenon, defines fundamental characteristics of a definite historical epoch, definite nations and some definite groups of people.
Gnosiological function-philosophy answers the questions of knowability of the world, limits of cognition, essence of the truth, object and subject of cognition, stages, levels and forms of cognition, laws of cognitive process, ways and facilities of achievement of the truth, methods of verification of true knowledge, essence and role of practice in the process of cognition and others. Philosophy also works out universal principles of the cognitive process underlining specific character of man’s consciousness and the world relation.
Methodological function - philosophy correlates and coordinates application of philosophical, scientific and concrete-scientific cognitive facilities: methods, principles, approaches. Universal philosophical methodology in relation to concrete scientific methods serves as the means of generalization and grounds of scientific principles; it determines logical connections between separate groups of methods. Philosophy provides the boost of scientific knowledge. Philosophical method, used together with concrete sciences methods is capable to help these sciences to work out complex theoretical problems, to foresee scientific discoveries.
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Axiological function – philosophy develops a theory of such values as Good, Justice, Truth, Beauty and others; studies their origin, classifies them into material and spiritual, social and individual, builds up a hierarchy of values and defines their role in human life.
Logical function – philosophy provides the formation of human thought culture, the development of critical unprejudiced position in individual and social-cultural dialogues.
Praxeological function consists in that the system of philosophical knowledge mastered by man grows into the instruments of active, transforming influence on the surrounding world (both natural and social) and on man himself. Really, transforming the world man changes himself. Philosophy plays an important role in man's determination of his own being purport and facilities of its implementation.
Critical function is manifested in opposition of philosophy to empirical reality, to everyday life, in destruction of various habitual stereotypes and prejudices and search for a more perfected human world.
Philosophical knowledge is called not only to help man to be oriented in the world, but it also serves as a means of making a theoretical model for man to carry out proper transformations. Philosophical knowledge summarizes all types of communication between people; through universal categories it shows the unity of various forms of their vital activity and their indissoluble connection with the world.
LECTURE 2.
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