HAVE TO ( NOT HAVE TO ) правило/закон, ты должен, потому что так сложились обстоятельства
obligation and necessity:
· when there is an institutional rule or a law:
You have to get a work permit before you go.
· use have to in present, past and future
no obligation:
You don`t have to get a work permit before you go. (= it is not necessary)
We didn`t have to worry about permits when I was there.
I hope I won`t have to work late tonight.
SHOULD (SHOULD NOT) совет
suggestions and advice:
You should try and use it whenever you can.
You shouldn`t dress casually for work.
12. Articles (definite, indefinite and zero). Main uses and examples.
A/an
We use a/an
· to refer to smth for the first time:
I`d like to talk to you today about an exciting development.
· to refer to any one from a group of several:
Climate protection is a challenge for our entire society. (one of many challenges)
· to classify people or things as belonging to a group:
Envisat is a fully-equipped observation satellite. (there are different kinds of satellite)
· to say what job smb does:
My brother is an engineer.
· use with singular countable nouns
The
We use the
· when the listener/reader knows which thing we mean (it may have been mentioned before):
Envisat is a fully-equipped observation satellite… The satellite was launched in 2002.
or it is understood which thing me mean:
As a part of the conference on environmental awareness…
· when there is only one of this thing:
the earth, the sun, the twentieth century
· for superlatives:
It is equipped with the best eyes possible.
· to talk about playing a musical instrument:
He plays the piano and she plays the guitar.
· with certain proper nouns:
· nationalities (the British)
· rivers (the Thames)
· island groups (the Maldives)
· mountain ranges (the Alps)
· seas and oceans (the Black Sea)
· country names that represented a group (the USA)
· name famous/historical buildings (the White house)
· noun phrases with of (the Great Wall of China)
· with university: the University of Bath/Bath University
No article
We use no article
· with plural or uncountable nouns to talk generally about things:
It will deliver information about our changing environment.
· with certain proper nouns:
· continents (Europe)
· countries (Russia)
· states or counties (Michigan)
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· towns and cities (Tokyo)
· mountains (Everest)
· lakes (Lake Superior)
· companies (Microsoft)
· buildings and places with the name of a town (Heathrow Airport)
· with mealtimes:
I have lunch at 12.30.
· in common expressions after prepositions:
to/at school/university; to/in class; in prison/hospital/bed
at home; at/to work; at night; by bus/bicycle/car/train/plane; on foot
13. Conditional I, II and III. Uses, examples and difference.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
We use the first conditional
· to talk about smth we feel is a probable future result:
If you leave your money in the bank, you won`t earn ant interest and it may lose value over time.
(might, could, may instead of will, or can to mean sometimes)
SECOND CONDITIONAL
We use the second conditional
· to talk about imaginary, impossible or unlikely situations in the present or future:
If I went travelling, I wouldn`t have any money left over.
That`s what I would do if I were/was you.
· was/were + to-infinitive to refer to unlikely actions in the future:
If you were to spend a year travelling around the world, you`d probably need an awful lot more money than this!
Other words to introduce a condition:
· when, as soon as (= if)
I`ll give you a lift into town when I finish this work.
· unless (= if … not)
You won`t earn much money unless you invest it properly.
· provided/providing that; so/as long as
As long as you get a second-hand car, you should still be able to invest some money. (= if you get)
· in case (because there might be …)
You should keep this reference number in case there are any problems.
THIRD CONDITIONAL
We use the third conditional
· to imagine the result of smth that did not happen, it describes hypothetical situation in the past:
If I`d bought a second-hand car, I wouldn`t have taken out this big bank loan.
(might/could instead of would to say that smth was less certain)
14. Nouns and their plurals. Rules and exceptions. Countable and uncountable nouns. Examples.
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15. Countable and uncountable nouns. Quantifiers (few/little, much/many, a few/a little, number/amount, a lot of). Examples.
16. Some, any and no. Rules and examples of use. Indefinite pronouns (somebody/anybody/nobody, something/anything/nothing, somewhere/anywhere/nowhere, etc)
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. In English, there is a particular group of indefinite pronouns formed with a quantifier or distributive preceded by any, some, every and no.
| Person | Place | Thing | |
| All | everyone everybody | everywhere | everything |
| Part (positive) | someone somebody | somewhere | something |
| Part (negative) | anyone anybody | anywhere | anything |
| None | no one nobody | nowhere | nothing |
Indefinite pronouns with some and any are used to describe indefinite and incomplete quantities in the same way that some and any are used alone.
Indefinite pronouns are placed in the same location as a noun would go in the sentence.
| Noun | Indefinite pronoun |
| I would like to go to Paris this summer. | I would like to go somewhere this summer. |
| Jim gave me this book. | Someone gave me this book. |
| I won't tell your secret to Sam. | I won't tell your secret to anyone. |
| I bought my school supplies at the mall. | I bought everything at the mall. |
Affirmative
In affirmative sentences, indefinite pronouns using some are used to describe an indefinite quantity, the indefinite pronouns with every are used to describe a complete quantity, and the pronouns with no are used to describe an absence. Indefinite pronouns with no are often used in affirmative sentences with a negative meaning, but these are nevertheless not negative sentences because they are lacking the word not.
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· Everyone is sleeping in my bed.
· Someone is sleeping in my bed.
· No one is sleeping in my bed.
· I gave everything to Sally.
· He saw something in the garden.
· There is nothing to eat.
· I looked everywhere for my keys.
· Keith is looking for somewhere to live.
· There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris.
Any and the indefinite pronouns formed with it can also be used in affirmative sentences with a meaning that is close to every: whichever person, whichever place, whichever thing, etc.
· They can choose anything from the menu.
· You may invite anybody you want to your birthday party.
· We can go anywhere you'd like this summer.
· He would give anything to get into Oxford.
· Fido would follow you anywhere.
Negative sentences
Negative sentences can only be formed with the indefinite pronouns that include any.
· I don't have anything to eat.
· She didn't go anywhere last week.
· I can't find anyone to come with me.
Many negative sentences that include an indefinite pronoun with any can be turned into affirmative sentences with a negative meaning by using an indefinite pronoun with no. However, there is a change in meaning with this transformation: the sentence that includes an indefinite pronoun with no is stronger, and can imply emotional content such as defensiveness, hopelessness, anger, etc.
· I don't know anything about it. = neutral
· I know nothing about it. = defensive
· I don't have anybody to talk to. = neutral
· I have nobody to talk to. = hopeless
· There wasn't anything we could do. = neutral
· There was nothing we could do. = defensive/angry
Negative questions
Indefinite pronouns with every, some, and any can be used to form negative questions. These questions can usually be answered with a "yes" or a "no"
Pronouns formed with any and every are used to form true questions, while those with some generally imply a question to which we already know or suspect the answer.
· Is there anything to eat?
· Did you go anywhere last night?
· Is everyone here?
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· Have you looked everywhere?
These questions can be turned in to false or rhetorical questions by making them negative. The speaker, when posing a question of this type, is expecting an answer of "no".
· Isn't there anything to eat?
· Didn't you go anywhere last night?
· Isn't everyone here?
· Haven't you looked everywhere?
Some and pronouns formed with it is only used in questions to which we think we already know the answer, or questions which are not true questions (invitations, requests, etc.) The person asking these questions is expecting an answer of "Yes".
· Are you looking for someone?
· Have you lost something?
· Are you going somewhere?
· Could somebody help me, please? = request
· Would you like to go somewhere this weekend? = invitation
These questions can be made even more definite if they are made negative. In this case, the speaker is absolutely certain he will receive the answer "Yes".
· Aren't you looking for someone?
· Haven't you lost something?
· Aren't you going somewhere?
· Couldn't somebody help me, please?
· Wouldn't you like to go somewhere this weekend?
17. Personal and reflexive pronouns (my, myself, mine, etc). Difference in use and examples.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
subject personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
object personal pronouns: me, you, him, it, us, them
We use pronouns to replace nouns and avoid repetition of the noun:
I can introduce you to my friend, Dasha. She`s a student from Russia.
Subject pronouns before verbs:
I only arrived last month.
Object pronouns after verbs and prepositions:
I have had a lot of students staying with me over the year.
It
· as a subject to start a sentence without carrying and meaning (weather, time, distance):
It didn`t always rain.
· to start sentences when the real subject is an infinitive or an –ing form:
It won`t take long to settle in.
· to refer to phrases, whole sentences or ideas:
I only arrived last month and I am still finding it all a bit strange.
You and we
To talk about everybody in general we can use
· you:
In Australia you often eat sandwiches for lunch.
· we:
We often eat lunch in a bit of a hurry.
They
· to mean experts or authorities:
They have changed the law recently. (= the government)
· when we do not know or do not need to say if the person is male or female:
I asked a student if they liked learning English and said no!
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
We use reflexive pronouns
· when the subject and the object of the verb are the same:
You can prepare yourself a packed lunch if you like.
· to add emphasis to the subject or object:
I clean the kitchen and the living areas myself.
· with by to mean on my own/on your own etc.:
I clean the kitchen by myself.
· after some set expressions in the imperative with yourself/yourselves:
Help yourself.
18. Passive Voice. Form and uses. Examples.
19. Comparative and Superlative forms of adjectives. Rules and examples. Adverbs and how they’re formed. Exceptions (late/lately, hard/hardly, fast, etc). Comparative and superlative forms of adverbs.
20. Reported speech and sequence of tenses. Reported questions. Rules and examples.
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