Grammar notes: Revision of Verbals
The infinitive is a non-finite verb form with the particle "to":to run; to write;to come.
English verbs have two participles: the present participle (smiling, doing) and the past participle (smiled, done).Participles have some features of verbs and are used in continuous, perfect and perfect continuous tenses (he issmiling; he has done a job).Participles have some features of adjectives and perform the function of attributes (a growing income; a broken cup).Participles are used as adverbial modifiers.
The gerunds may be: simple active (reading); perfect (having done); passive (being performed); perfect passive (having been performed).
Task 13 Read the sentences, translate them into Russian, paying special attention to the words in bold type.
1. It used to differ in degree, but not in principle from the trade between different regions.
2. The experience of international finance tends to involve greater uncertainties and risks.
3. Most governments do not even try to control their exchange rates or to impose controls upon access to foreign currencies.
4. The government of Great Britain announced that it was suspending the convertibility of the pound.
5. The economic term “globalization” refers to the move that is taking place in the direction of complete mobility of capital.
6. Markets are changing the economy, as well as consciousness of the people.
7. Meanwhile, the development of economic theory has been moving slowly and inconsistently.
8. The biggest economic influence will be giving specialization in the production of the commodity.
9. Nowadays economics is concernedwith the impacts upon economic activity from international differences in productive resources and consumer preferences.
10. The trade theory, originating with Ricardo’s Theory of Comparative Advantage depends upon the realism of its postulates.
SPEAKING
Task 14 Read the following text. Do you agree with the author?
The European Union (EU) was established after Second World War France officially undertook the establishment of the EU proposing to create “the first concrete foundation of a European federation”. On May 9, 1950 the EU was created and on July 23, 1952 six European countries joint to the EU: Belgium, West Germany, France, Italy, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands. Then 9 countries joint to the EU: Denmark, Ireland, the United Kingdom on January 1,1973; Greece on January 1,1981; Spain, Portugal on January 1,1986; East Germany reunited with West Germany and became part of the European Community on October 3, 1990; Austria, Finland, and Sweden on January 1,1995. In its Strategy Paper "Towards the Enlarged Union", which accompanied the 2002 Regular Reports on the candidate countries for accession, the Commission considered that ten candidate countries will have fulfilled the criteria for membership from the beginning of 2004 and recommended that the accession negotiations be concluded with them. Subsequently, the accession negotiations with the Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia were concluded and a Treaty of Accession was signed in Athens on 16 April 2003. These ten countries have joined the EU on 1 May 2004, after having shown the level of meeting the requirements. These requirements are called the Copenhagen Criteria. In June 1993, the European Council at Copenhagen laid down the foundations of the current enlargement process by declaring that "the associated countries in Central and Eastern Europe that so desire shall become members of the European Union" and by defining the membership conditions, the so-called Copenhagen criteria. Under the Copenhagen criteria, membership requires that candidate country ensures:
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· stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and the respect for and protection of minorities": the political criteria. Since the entry into force of the Treaty of Amsterdam in May 1999, these requirements have been enshrined as constitutional principles in the Treaty on European Union, and have been emphasized in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, that was proclaimed at the Nice European Council in December 2000.
· the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union": the economic criteria. These criteria are consistent with the principles for economic policies as enshrined in the EC Treaty by the Maastricht Treaty that entered into force on 1 November 1993. These criteria also include: economic growth GDP per capita share in GDP Inflation employment, general government deficits trade and current account Privatization Financial intermediation Market entry and exit economic integration of candidates with the EU.
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· ability to take on the obligations of membership, including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union". In order to evaluate the extent to which candidates meet the political criteria, it is not only provided a description of their various institutions (Parliament, Executive, and Judiciary), but examined how the various rights and freedoms are exercised in practice. Measures undertaken by the countries in order to fight against corruption are also examined.
The economic criteria consist of two elements: the existence of a functioning market economy, and the capacity to withstand competitive pressure and market forces within the Union. These two elements are assessed through a number of sub-criteria which have been defined in Agenda 2000. The existence of a functioning market economy requires that prices, as well as trade, are liberalized and that an enforceable legal system, including property rights, is in place. Macroeconomic stability and consensus about economic policy enhance the performance of a market economy. A well-developed financial sector and the absence of any significant barriers to market entry and exit improve the efficiency of the economy. The capacity to withstand competitive pressure and market forces within the Union requires the existence of a market economy and a stable macroeconomic framework. It also requires a sufficient amount of human and physical capital, including infrastructure. It depends on the extent to which government policy and legislation influence competitiveness, on the degree of trade integration a country achieves with the Union and on the proportion of small firms. Basing on the fulfillment progress criterion they will be taking up in three categories. The first category embraces those issues where a country is ready or where minor issues remain to be addressed. The second category includes remaining issues requiring enhanced efforts and an increased pace of progress. Thethird category addresses issues of serious concern where immediate and decisive action needs to be taken for the country.
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