Manned Systems for the Exploration of the Solar System
The space station era was opened with the launch of the Soviet Union's Salyut 1. In all, there were five first-generation Salyut space stations and two second-generation ones. Then in 1986, the Soviet Union successfully launched its even more advanced space station, Mir.
The Soviet Union took a slow but steady route to establishing a permanent human presence in space with remarkable results. The Western World, on the other hand, has taken a totally different route.
In 1973, two years after Salyut 1, the United States launched Skylab, the Western World's first space station. It was used for three highly successful missions. The years 1975 to 1981 were spent developing the Space Shuttle, a program that, through Spacelab, also brought Europe into the manned spaceflight area. This reusable space laboratory sponsored by the European Space Agency made its first flight in 1983 after ten years of studies and development programs.
In 1984 a formal decision was made to build a space station for the Western World. The European Manned Space Programme is to begin in 1995 with the aim of having the European space station in initial operation by the year 2002. It is supposed that there will be three stages in the implementation of the programme.
During 2002 to 2005 the European space station will operate in a semiautomatic mode. A crew of two to three astronauts is expected to carry out two missions annually to the space station, each mission lasting three to four months. After a year of operation a larger laboratory module will be added. The mission will be increased up to six months for a crew of three.
During 2005 to 2010 the station will be permanently manned, with three person crews exchanged every four to six months.
By the year 2010 and beyond the European space station will have become a multifunctional laboratory for a wide spectrum of scientific studies. It is supposed to be used to improve space technology in such areas as electric power generation, robotics, life support systems, communications and the Earth observation sensors. In addition, it will function as a base for servicing other spacecrafts.
Further, the space station will be a transportation means for flights to and from the Earth as well as to launch lunar and planetary missions. Thus, the space station system could establish and support both a lunar base and a Mars mission, and eventually could be an element in support of an international, global settlement of mankind in space.
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Living Aboard the Space Shuttle
We often see the cosmonauts carry out their complicated work in space, but what do they do in their off-duty hours? What do they eat, where do they sleep?
One of the main features of the Shuttle is the relatively low forces of gravity during launch and reentry. These are about 3 g, that is within the limits that can be withstood by people.
Its living accommodation is relatively comfortable. The crew cabin is 71.5 m. There are two floors inside the cabin. On the top level, the commander and pilot monitor and control sophisticated equipment. Behind their seats is a work area where the crew can carry out experiments.
The bottom level is the living area. It contains facilities for sleeping, eating and waste disposal.
Living in such a kind of cabin requires only ordinary clothing. Air pressure is the same as the Earth's at sea level. This air is made of 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen. The air is cleaner than the Earth's. Temperature can be regulated between 16° and 32° С
The Shuttle meals are eaten in a small dining area consisting of a table and restraints (ограничители) which function as chairs in zero-gravity. Meals are served in a special tn.y which separates the different food containers and keeps them from floating around in the weightless cabin. Most foods can be eaten with ordinary spoons and forks as long as there are no sudden starts and stops.
Just as on Earth recreation and sleep are important to good health in space. Different games, books and tape-recorders to listen to music are available.
In zero-gravity there is no "up" position and the cosmonaut is oriented in the sleeping bag as if he or she were sleeping up. Now beds are built into the walls with an individual light, communications, fan, sound suppression, blanket and sheets. They even have pillows.
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